https://caspercollege.cvlcollections.org/files/original/85e4028220254a9c7a1f2e8ab4e6d6fb.pdf 03d9f6cb774be8cb310791ad66d0e26e PDF Text Text CASPER XfAffCT CtLUBE WYOMING Chkllenee �Challenge-In every academic discipline, to study, to think, to express clearly one's knowledge and understanding in suitable written forms. I �Challenge i X Published al Casper Community College Caspe^. Wyxwning 82601 February 1996 Copyright by Casper Community College 2 �Challenge: 1996 Table of Contents The Puzzle of Altruism Douglas Milek 5 Antenuptial Agreement Jo Hadley 11 Addicted to a Dollar Interoffice Memorandium of Law Bacterial Organisms 17 Collette Cox Karen Moenkhaus Hal H. Hutchinson Interview with Zbignew Bzdak 28 31 Louie Kistler Sexuality, Sensuality and Repression Among the Bourgoisie The Culture of the Student Age of the Universe 21 Tillie McGee 41 Shawn Houck Susan Russell 46 Hypotheses on Infanticidal Behavior in Animals Motion for Third Party Complaint Symmetry and M.C. Escher Jessica Clifford Jo Hadley Sara Lilley Nursing Care: Opportunities and Trends Computer Assisted Instruction 34 Beverly Czerniak Tamiko Matney Cover design executed by Eric Valdez 3 51 bl 60 63 66 �Introduction Casper College is pleased to present the ninth issue of Challenge, a magazine to honor excellence. As a display medium for academic endeavor. Challenge solicits superior examples of student writing from all college disciplines; our purpose is to illustrate both the breadth and depth of course work on our campus. Instructors have selected representative writing from their courses, and, though we do not include pieces from writing classes, we encourage all forms: exams, reports, essays, term papers. The college Writing Across the Curriculum Committee serves as a jury to select articles to be published. This issue represents work submitted in response to the call for papers for two semesters, spring 1995 and fall 1995. Arlene Larson, editor Casper College Casper, Wyoming Spring, 1996 4 �The Puzzle of Altruism By Douglas Milek Course: Animal Behavior Instructor: Dr. Will Robinson Assignment: Students were assigned a term paper on any aspect of animal behavior. They were encouraged to select an interesting behavior and discuss whether it was clearly adaptive or advantageous to the animal, and to discuss its possible evolution. ( This is a university course, but the student is a CC student.) Every so often a large piece is brought out that seems to describe the natural world quite well. Natural selection. In its context in the theory of evolution. Is such a piece. Darwin looked al the diversity in the organic world, and questioned the possible processes that could lead to such variation among individuals. He proposed that in the struggle to survive, each individual would succeed by the viable variations it possessed. "Variations, however slight and from whatever cause prtKeeding, if they be in any degree profitable to the individuals of a species, in their infinitely complex relations to other organic beings and to their physical conditions of life, will tend to the preservation of such individuals, and So act that (he rule on which thou actesl would admit of being adopted as a law by all rational beings. Immanuel Kant Introduction Science is an art of discovery and explanation, a system of supposed objectivity and precision that seeks to uncover the truth resting beneath the veils of the mysterious. The more science discovers, the more categories and labels are proposed, and the more pigeon-holes created. But how else could it be done? Understanding everything would be to see the puzzle completed, and as more information becomes available each piece will be placed where it best tits. 5 �The above definition of altruism appeared as the introductory statement of Robert L. Trivers article, “The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism” (1971). This definition looks at altruism in its truest sense, where the behavior is directed toward individuals who are not closely related. However, it seems that such behavior may actually entail rewards to the altruist that would not be expected by witnessing only the apparent detriment. This aspect of altruistic behavior is called reciprocal altruism. The major premise of reciprocal altruism is "that under certain conditions natural selection favors these altruistic behaviors because in the long run they benefit the organism performing them" (Trivers 1971). Nowhere in the scope of altruistic behavior is Immanuel Kant's statement concerning his philosophy of categorical imperatives more applicable. For reciprocal altruism to endure in a population, all individuals must react altruistically toward one another, and each recipient of ar. altruistic act must 'return the favor'. Those that do not reciprocate are 'cheaters' (Trivers, 1971 ). One would initially assume that these 'cheaters’ would benefit by not performing any act detrimental to themselves, while still reaping the rewards of having others act altruistically toward them. However, we can observe the alarm calling in the Belding ground squirrels and see that this is not the case. Each Belding ground squirrel assumes the role of the alarmist if it sees a predator in the vicinity. However, if one chooses not to alarm the others, it is falling to reciprocate the behavior. The silent ground squirrel may likely escape this incident, but certainly other similar ones will follow where he may not be the first to detect a predator. In such a case, if an alarm is not given, he may suffer by not having ample lime to escape the predator. It can be seen then that if each individual 'expects' a net reproductive benefit, each member must cooperate and reciprocate the behavior. Trivers believes that under certain conditions this 'cheating' will eventually be selected against, and prove unadaptive. Why not cheat?...Selection will discriminate against the cheater if cheating has later adverse affects on his life which outweigh the benefit of will generally be inherited by the offspring" (Darwin. 1859). Following Darwin's logic of natural selection, most scientists view the behaviors and adaptations of organisms in such a light; each individual struggling for its own existence. In other words, natural selection works on individuals. The Puzzle of Altruism There are behaviors, however, where it appears that animals are sacrificing themselves, and thus their role in this struggle, to benefit others. For example, honeybees that sting intruders are sure to die because of a barbed stinger that pulls out the poison saccontaining viscera when the barb hooks into the skin of a vertebrate. Such behavior is called altruism. The fundamental question that must be addressed when exploring the nature of altruistic behavior is: Why, if natural selection resides at the level of the individual, would any organism sacrifice its own fitness to benefit another? "Altruistic behavior can be defined as behavior that benefits another organism, not closely related, while being apparently detrimental to the organism performing the behavior, benefit and detriment being defined in terms of contribution to Inclusive fitness" (Trivers, 1971 ). Besides the honeybees, altruism can be seen in alarm callers like the Belding ground squirrel (Alcock, 1993), and in humans where perhaps a man jumps Into a freezing river to rescue a drowning child. Although such examples may initially appear to be altruistic, research has shown that such behavior may not alway.s be so detrimental to the altruist. For example, in a community of Belding ground squirrels, an individual will let out an alarm call when it sees a predatory hawk. The individual calls while it is running for cover. The response of the other ground squirrels to the call i.s to also run for cover. The hawk is then confused by all of these running rodents, and may be less able to single out one to attack. Therefore, the alarm caller Is benefiting along with the rest of the community, and is apparently not inflicting any sort of detriment on itself. In contrast, squirrels that do not call and attempt to escape are likely to make themselves more obvious to the hawk by their movement. 6 �two individuals who risk their lives to save each other will be selected over those who face drowning on their own (Tri vers, 1971). Although it would be hard to imagine the entire population drowning at one time or another and being saved by each other, this instance of reciprocal altruism and its implications conjures up some interesting questions about society. The continuation of a trait is often explored al a genetic level as Trivers' work demonstrates, but I would like to briefly l(X)k at the social influences toward the perpetuation of such a behavior as altruism. 1 believe that in humans there is little conscious recognition of personal genetic survival in relation to altruistic deeds. As humans, we may award the hero with a plaque, or a parade down Main Street if he has survived his ordeal. We regard heroes with admiration because they have done something extraordinary. They have transcended the primary concerns for themselves, and manifested through action their allegiance to a higher purpose. We revere this because it represents an action that originates on (he outer limits of humanity's 'good' side. The potential is recognized, but few of us go there. In his book. The Power of Myth, Joseph Campbell (1988) explains that "If you realize what the real problem is—losing yourself, giving yourself to some higher end, or to another-you realize that this itself is the ultimate trial. When we quit thinking about ourselves and our own self-preservation, we undergo a truly heroic transformation of consciousness...The moral objective is that of saving people, or saving a person, or supporting an idea. The hero sacrifices himself for somelhing-lhafs the morality of it". Truly that is the morality of altruistic behavior in humansthat we have the intrinsic ability to go beyond the sphere of our own existence, and sacrifice ourselves to others, or to our ideals. This idea of humankind's morality is where we see a profound separation between our altruistic behavior and that demonstrated by other members of the animal kingdom. Because of our strong dependence on a social network, heroes are going to be rewarded for their attention to the good of society, or other members of it, over themselves. I believe that our struggle for existence is based on not reciprocating. This may happen if the altruist responds to the cheating by curtailing all future possible altruistic gestures to this individual. Assuming that the benel'its of these lost altruistic acts outweigh the costs involved in reciprocating, the cheater will be selected against relative to individuals who. because neither cheats, exchange many altruistic acts...In short, he can switch friends (Trivers 1971 ). Human Altruism The scope of altruistic behavior is perhaps more extensive in human beings than any other animal. As E.O. Wilson states, "conscious altruism is a transcendental quality that distinguishes human beings from animals" (Wilson, 1978). Building on the apparent distinguishing element of increased consciousness, the vast scope of human altruism may also be attributed ironically to the struggle between our intrinsic social nature and our perennial attempts to promote ourselves as individuals. Unlike the eusocial insects that will be discussed later, humans are typically unable to serve the 'greater good’ of society without some tangible reward or recognition. However, we are able to conform somewhat to a social contract within our own cultures that enables a degree of cooperation. One common example of reciprocal altruism in human.s is the rescue of a drowning man by another. Certain assumptions must be made concerning the fitness and survival of each individual relating to whether the drowning man is helped or ncX: (A)ssume that the energy costs involved in rescuing are trivial compared to the survival probabilities. Were this an isolated event, it is clear that the rescuer should not bother to save the drowning man. But if the drowning man reciprocates at some future time, and if the survival chances are then exactly reversed, it will have been to the benefit of each participant to have risked his life for the other. Each participant will have traded a one-half chance of dying for about a one-tenth chance. If we assume that the entire population is sooner or later exposed to the same risk of drowning, the 7 �the fear of losing consciousness. As a species we have invented countless numbers of religions that assure us of life after death. This is a strategy to comfort ourselves with (he thought that consciousness will never be extinguished. And while absolute faith paints wonderful images of heaven and hell, death is still the most frightening of human endeavors. A.s expressed by Dylan Thomas to his dying father, "Rage, rage against the dying of the light". 1 would recognize at least three influential factors determining the nature and frequency of altruistic behavior in humans which are adaptations to those proposed by Trivers (i.e. when there are many altruistic events in a lifetime, when an altruist repeatedly interacts with a small group of people, and that altruists are exposed to each other each benefiting equally at some point in their lives). My factors are as follows: 1. The nature of the relationship between the altruist and the beneficiary. Most of our lives are comprised of shared experiences with other people. Consequently strong bonds are formed with certain individuals. As a result, there is increased concern for the well-being of that person because harm done to them also affects those that are close to them. Therefore, the likelihood of acting altruistically toward another of close relation, whether a blood relative or close friend, is increased with the intimacy of the relationship. Extreme examples of this are demonstrated in war where individuals literally sacrifice themselves by covering grenades in order to save their comrades (Wilson, 1978). I would make the assertion that the frequency of such acts can be attributed to the closeness of relationships formed on the battlefield under such conditions of war. This example leads to the second influencing factor of altruistic behavior. 2. Previous experiences or exposure to forms of altruism. This factor is concerned with whether someone has acted altruistically toward you, or whether you have witnessed altruistic behavior in others (especially someone admired). People who rescue others from fires, automobile accidents, or drowning are all taking a potential risk of banning themselves in an attempt to help someone else’s chance of survival. Frequent and prevalent examples of such behavior are more likely to produce similar behavior. Conversely, if people are not exposed to altruism and instead are surrounded by selfish behavior, they will be less likely to act altruistically. 3. An increasing density of individuals in an area leads to less frequent displays of altruism. As an example of this. I turn to a psychological phrase — "diffusion of responsibility". Diffusion of responsibility is simply the decreased chance that an individual will offer help as the number of people present increases. For example, a stranded motorist may be more likely to receive help from a passerby on a nearly deserted dirt road than he or she would on a crowded highway. It is assumed that this behavior occurs because when only one person is present at the scene of such a situation there is no confusion as to who should act. On the other hand, with many people present, the responsibility 'diffuses' into the crowd (Dares, 1975). Three notable instances of diffusion of responsibility appear below: Kitty Genovese was raped, stabbed, and beaten to death over the course of a half hour at 3 a.m. in Kew Gardens in New York City. Her attack and death was watched by 38 of her neighbors, looking from their apartment windows. No one helped or even called the police. A I7-year-oId boy was slabbed in a Manhattan subway in the presence of 11 other riders. The attackers left unharmed, and the boy bled to death. No one helped. An Atlanta, Georgia, engineer was accosted by a pickpocket while waiting for a bus in plain daylight, in the presence of al least 10 other people. He grabbed back his wallet, and the pickpocket stabbed him. No one helped. The man finally got on a bus and went to the hospital by himself (Davis, 1978). Other researchers besides Trivers, such as William D. Hamilton, have proposed models that attempt with excruciating detail to explain the adaptive benefits gained by acting altruistically. As 1 have mentioned, the tendency to act altruistically toward close relations is very prevalent. Hamilton (1964) proposed a model to explain how altruism could spread through a population. In his introductory paragraph, he wrote, "If natural selection followed the classical models exclusively, species would not show any behavior 8 �more positively social than the coming together of the sexes and parental care." Hamilton knew, as his passage implies, that animals demonstrate behaviors that seem contradictory to the general premise that natural selection operates at the level of the individual. These behaviors apparently entail lessening or destroying one's own fitness to benefit another's. Hamilton's (1964) primary question, then, was if the altruist's genes are not passed on to the next generation, how can the altruistic allele persist in a population? To answer this question, he devised a model that would measure an individual's "inclusive fitness". He focused on an individual's tendency toward kin selection, and how this preference to act altruistically toward members of one's immediate family enhanced that individual's indirect fitness. Before proceeding further it is necessary to offer brief explanations of kin selection and fitness. First, kin selection refers to the "evolutionary effects of aid given to both descendant kin (offspring) and nondescendant kin (relatives other than offspring)" (Alcock, 1993). Direct fitness is simply the genes that are passed on to offspring by direct reproduction by an individual. Indirect fitness, which Hamilton championed, deals with the genes that are passed on to nondescendent offspring as a result of helping a relative reach reproduclivity. The importance of indirect fitness and kin selection is paramount in explaining the continuation of the altruistic trait in a species. Hamilton (1964) found that an organism acting altruistically toward close relatives would not sacrifice its fitness because of the genetic relatedness exhibited between the altruist and its relatives. For example, the genetic relatedness between two siblings is 0.5 because each offspring shares on the average 50 percent of its genotype with the other. Similarly, each parent of these offspring will also have a 0.5 relatedness with those offspring because they share half of their genes with them. An aunt or uncle will have a genetic relatedness of .25 with a niece or nephew (Alcock, 1993). As the relationships become more distant from the immediate family, the level of relatedness drops. Given that humans have lived in large extended families for most of our evolution, kin selection might be offered as an alternate explanation for altruism in human cultures. By spending so much of our evolution in cultures of cooperative existence, we are likely to still act in ways that benellt the tribe, and therefore ultimately ourselves. It is still In the interest of the altruist that the tribe should not suffer, because in the tribe, family members exist. And as seen in kin selection, the altruist's genes may be passed on through the reproduction of relatives. Haplodiploidy The final, and possibly most Interesting, example of altruism is found In the eustx:ial (caste-containing) insects (I.e., bees, termites, wasps, etc.). Various authorities believe that altruism in eusocial insects evolved a.s a consequence of haplodiploidy. Haplodiploidy Is a sex-determination system particular to hymenopierans —the ants, bees, and wasps (Wilson, 1975). Males develop from unfertilized eggs and remain haploid, while females are fertilized and thus become diploid. This unique system results in sisters that share 0.75 of their genotype with one another. The sisters' genetic relationship is higher than that shared with their mother (0.5), and significantly higher than with their brothers (0.25). How would the high degree of relatednes.s amongst sisters (0.75) affect tendencies toward altruistic behavior? Because sisters are so closely related, "A gene for altruism toward sisters will be propagated faster than a gene for altruism towards offspring. This will be true if the female's help increases the number of new queens her mother makes by at least two thirds the number of fertile offspring the worker could have produced herself" (Burk and Grief, 1984). Sisters' indirect fitness would thus be greater by helping their sisters' with reproductive and brooding responsibilities, than if they were to disperse and attempt to establish their own colonies. Termites also exhibit strong sociality, but are not hapkxliploid. Besides the Hymenoplera, the termites are the only other arthropods to have true sociality (Wilson, 1975). The termites are an example of social behavior similar to that of the Hymenopierans without being haplodiploid. 9 �humans. But even when looking at altruism in humans, it is difficult to understand. Organisms evolve for one great purpose—the passing of genes to offspring. Behaviors are adapted for efficiency. Altruism seems to be the opposite of everything an Individual might do to ensure the survival of its genes. Yet, when we look closer, altruism is not so selfless. As seen in kin selection and haplodiploidy, the individual is benefiting itself in the long run even though its behavior appears to be detrimental. The indirect propagation of genes can be a.s effective as direct reproduction (as seen in the Hymenopterans). Altruism may simply be an advantageous behavior when organism.s ‘choose’ to follow this path of indirect reproduction. Haplodiploidy, then, is looked at as a clue to the evolution of higher social evolution, but it is not necessary for true altruistic behavior in the eusocial insects. Conclusion Altruism is certainly a complex behavior, one that leads the observer into making many assumptions. It is difficult to dismiss the notion of implying group selection as an explanation for altruism; it would be the obvious and simple answer. However, natural selection shows us that genes are passed on by the individual and not the group. I suppose it is a tendency of humans to anthropomorphisize this behavior, and propose that other animals understand their behavior and are acting on the same premise as Works Cited AlciKk. J. 199,3. The Ecology of Social Behavior. In.: Animal Bfhtn ior. Sinauer A&sociates. Inc. Sunderland. Mass., p. 501-535. Burk, T. and J.W. Grier. 1992. Behavior in Social Groups. In; Binhigy Animat Behavior. Wm. C. Brown Publishers. Dubuque. Iowa. p. 449- 487. Campbell, f. 1988. Ute Pnwernf Myth. Isled. Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc.. New York. N.Y.. 293 p. Darwin. C. 1859. The Origin of Spedex. Mentor. New York. N.Y., p. 495. Daves, W.R 1975. Social Psychology. In.- 4 Texthimk of General PxytMagy. Thomas Y. Crowell Company. New York. N. Y.. p. 566-602. Hamilton. W.D. 1964. The Ev/tluliim ofAltruiiiii Behavior American Naturalist 97; 357-356. Mathews, R.W. and J.R. Mathews. 1978. Iiiiet i Behavior. 1st ed. John Wiley and Sons, New York. N.Y.. 507 p. Trivers, R.L. 1971. The Eoluikxt of Reciprocal Altruism. Quarterly Review of Biology 46: 35-57. Wilson, E.O. 1975. Sm inhialagy. 7th cd. Harvard University Press. Cambridge. Mass.. 697 p. Wilson, EO. 1978. Oti Hiiiium Nature. 2nd cd. Harvard University Press. Cambridge. Mass.. 260 p. 10 �Antenuptial Agreement By Jo Hadley Course: Family Law Instructor: H. Steven Brown Assignment: Draft an antenuptial agreement between Jeff Brown and Patty Kent. Ms. Kent has considerable real property assets and Mr. Brown is divorced with children from a prior marriage for whom he is financially responsible. provide to the other or for the benefit of the other are fully compensated by this agreement. Antenuptial Agreement I. Recitals This Antenuptial Agreement is made this___ day of October. 1995 between Jeff Brown, residing at 4508 So. Canyon Drive, Casper, Natrona County, Wyoming, and Patty Kent, residing at 1355 Laurel Street, Casper, Natrona County, Wyoming in contemplation of their proposed marriage. The consideration for this Agreement consists of the contemplated marriage of the parties and the promises of each party to act as the companion and homemaker to the other. Furthermore, the parties agree that any services which either party may II. Effective Date This Agreement shall be effective a.s of the___ day of__ , 1995 and shall continue until either the dissolution of the marriage of the parties or the death of either party. III. Intent of the Parties Jeff Brown and Pally Kent have the intent and desire to define and set forth the respective rights of each in the property of the other after their marriage. 11 �The parties intend and desire that all property owned respectively by each of them at the time of their marriage and all property that may be acquired by each of them from any source during their marriage shall be respectively their separate property, except as otherwise provided in this Agreement. Kent by her grandmother. These accounts and properties are the sole and separate properties of Patty Kent. It I.S understood and agreed by the parties that all of the property and property rights that each of the parties now has, or which each may hereafter acquire, shall pass to the heirs at law, devisees or legatees of the parties in precisely the same manner and with the same effect as though a marriage was not consummated between the parties. Jeff Brown and Patty Kent shall make a will to give, bequeath, devise, dispose or grant any or all of the separate property each now holds or will acquire hereafter. At the time of death of either party, his or her properties, money or credits shall pass to his or her heirs as designated in his or her will. Jeff Brown shall not claim any part of the estate of Patty Kent except that share granted by will in full, in lieu of any marital property rights which Jeff Brown might otherwise be entitled to. Patty Kent shall not claim any part of the estate of Jeff Brown except that share granted by will in full, in lieu of any marital property rights which Patty Kent might otherwise be entitled to. IV. Disclosure JetT Brown and Patty Kent have each made a full disclosure to the other of all of his or her property and assets. This Agreement is entered into with a full knowledge on the part of Jeff Brown and Patty Kent regarding the extent and value of the e.state of each other, and of all the rights conferred by law on each in the e.state of the other by virtue of such proposed marriage. Jeff Brown estimates his net worth to be approximately $292,103.00 -- See Exhibit A, Financial Disclosure Sheet, which is attached hereto and incorporated by reference. Jeff Brown's gross income from all sources in 1994 was $50,000,(X). He anticipates that his net worth and gross income will increa.se in future years. Patty Kent estimates her net worth to be approximately $1,335,515.00 -- See Exhibit B, Financial Di.sclosure Sheet, which is attached hereto and incorporated by reference. Patty Kent's gross income from all sources in 1994 wa.s $40.000.(X). She anticipates her net worth and gross income will increase In future years. VI. Life Insurance Jeff Brown currently maintains a life insurance policy on his life in the amount of $125,000.00. His children from a previous marriage are the beneficiaries for this policy. Jeff Brown will obtain an additional life insurance p>olicy on his life for $250.(XX).00. Patty Kent will be named the full benePiciary of additional life insurance policy to receive the full amount of the policy benefits. Patty Kent accepts the benefits provided herein in full satisfaction of any marital property rights. Patty Kent currently maintains a life insurance policy on her life in the amount of $125,000.00. Her children from a previous marriage are the beneficiaries for this policy. Patty Kent will obtain an additional life Insurance policy on her life for $250,(XX).00. Jeff Brown will be named the full beneficiary of the additional life insurance policy to receive the full amount of the policy benefits. Jeff V. Waiver and Release of Marital Property Rights Each of the parties to this Antenuptial Agreement agrees to waive all and every right that he or she might have or acquire by law by the marriage in any and all property of every kind and character, real, personal or mixed, now owned or which may hereafter be acquired by the other party. Specifically Jeff Brown waives all and every right he might have or acquire by law in marriage to the Andrew Carrol trust account of which Patty Kent is the sole beneficiary. Additionally. Jeff Brown waives all and every right he might have or acquire by law in marriage to the real property bequeathed to Patty 12 �Pfpwn ^ppph fhp benefiis provided herein in fnll satisfaction of any marital property rights. VIL Community Property If at any time during the marital relationship the parties become residents of a state under the laws of which husband and wife acquire property interests commonly known as community property, or any other properly and interests different from the property interests of husband and wife under the laws of the Stale of Wyoming, their property interests shall nevertheless remain the same as they would have been under the terms of this agreement construed in accordance with the laws of the. Stale of Wyoming. The parties shall each, at any time during or after the termination of the marital relationship, execute and deliver any and all deeds and other instruments desirable or necessary lo transfer any right, title, or interest in any property or estate of the other which they may acquire by virtue of any so-called community property laws to the persons who would otherwise be entitled thereto by virtue of this agreement. VIII. Joint and Common Expenses While Jeff Brown and Patty Kent are living together as husband and wife and while there is no complaint for divorce or for legal separation on file by either of them, all general living expenses and ordinary needs for the maintenance of their household shall be shared equally and paid from their separate properly. The parlies agree that Jeff Brown shall pay fifty percent (50%) and Patty Kent shall pay fifty percent (50%) of their living expenses while they are living together. Jeff Brown shall deposit $ 1,500.00 monthly and Patty Kent shall deposit $1,500 monthly into a joint checking account on which either party may draw. Any property purchased from such account and any balance in this account shall be owned in the same percentages as contributions to the account. The parties contemplate that they will reside in the home now owned by Pally Kent as her separate property and specifically agree that payments on any mortgage for such residence made from joint funds while the parties reside in that home shall be in lieu ot rent and shall not give rise to a joint interest in the home or the land on which the home is located. IX. Responsibility for Debts Jeff Brown's spousal support obligations to Anita Brown (his ex-wife) will be paid from his separate property and will remain his separate obligation. Jeft Brown's child support obligations to his children will be paid from his separate properly and will remain his separate obligation. Jeff Brown's obligation to provide for the college education of his daughters shall be paid from his separate property and will remain his separate obligation. Any debts, obligations, or mortgages owed by either party at the date of their proposed marriage shall remain the sole and separate debt, obligation or mortgage of the party incurring the obligation. Jeff Brown and Patty Kent agree lo hold each other free and harmless and lo indemnify each other for any obligation incurred prior to this Agreement in the event either of them is forced to pay that obligation and/or incur legal fees or costs in defending a lawsuit on that obligation. X. Tax Returns and Tax Refunds Any lax refund arising out of joint federal and stale declarations of estimated lax and lax returns that Jeff Brown and Patty Kent file under this Agreement shall after the reimbursement for tax return preparation costs, be apportioned between them in the same ratio as their contributions to the lax payments. Jeff Brown and Patty Kent shall consult and cooperate fully in taking all necessary steps to obtain lax refunds to which they appear to be entitled. Jetf Brown and Patty Kent shall share the reasonable expenses of obtaining such refunds in the same ratio as their respective contributions to the lax payments under this Agreement. XI. Limitation of Rights The purpose of this Agreement is lo define and limit the claims and demands which each of the 13 �of this agreement, each party consulted with an attorney of his or her choice and the terms and legal significance of this Agreement and the effect which it ha,s upon any interest which each party might obtain in the property of the other was fully explained to each. Each party acknowledges that he or she fully understands the significance of this Agreement and its legal effect and that he or she shall sign the same freely and voluntarily and that neither has any reason to believe that the other party did not understand fully the terms and conditions of this Agreement nor that he or she did not freely and voluntarily execute this Agreement. IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties have executed this Antenuptial Agreement al Casper, Natrona County, Wyoming at the day and year first written above. parties shall have against the estate of the other. Should either party die during the pendency of this Agreement, or should the Agreement be terminated by legal prtKeedings. the claims stipulated herein and defined shall be the limit which either party may have against the other party or his or her estate. XII. Severability of Provisions If any of the provisions of this Agreement are deemed to be invalid or unenforceable, such provisions shall be deemed severable from the remainder of this Agreement and shall not cause the invalidity or unenforceability of the remainder of this Agreement. If any provision shall be deemed invalid due to its scope, this provision shall be deemed valid to the extent of the scope permitted by law. XIII. Entire Agreement and Binding Effect Patty Kent Jeff Brown This Agreement sets forth the entire agreement between the parties with regard to the subject matter hereof. All agreements, covenants, representations and warranties either express and implied, oral or written, of the parties with regard to their financial relationship, either past, present or future, commencing as of the dale of marriage and terminating if and when they either separate or one predeceases the other, are contained in this Agreement. This Agreement shall be binding upon and inure to the benefit of both parties and their respective heirs, administrators, personal repre.sentatives, successors and assigns. ) )ss. COUNTY OF NATRONA) STATE OF WYOMING SUBSCRIBED in my presence and sworn to before me by Jeff Brown this_ day of October, 1995. Witness my hand and official seal. Notary Public My Commission Expires: STATE OF WYOMING ) )ss. COUNTY OF NATRONA ) XIV. Escrow Jeff Brown and Patty Kent agree that the original of this Antenuptial Agreement shall be deposited in escrow at Hilltop Bank. Escrow Department, 301 Country Club. Casper. Wyoming, to be held by this institution until dissolution of the marriage or the death of either of the parties to the marriage. SUBSCRIBED in my presence and sworn to before me by Patty Kent this_ day of October, 1995. Witness my hand and official seal. XV. Consultation with Attorney Notary Public The parties acknowledge that prior to the signing My Commission Expires: 14 �Attorney’s Certification I, Jane Smith, certify that I am a licensed attorney, admitted to practice law in the State of Wyoming. I further certify that I have consulted with Jeff Brown, a party to the foregoing agreement, and have fully advised him of his property rights and the legal significance of the foregoing agreement. Jeff Brown has acknowledged his full and complete understanding of the legal consequences of the foregoing agreement and has freely and voluntarily executed the agreement In my presence. Attorney’s Certification I, John Doe, certify that 1 am a licensed attorney, admitted to practice law in the State of Wyoming, I further certify that 1 have consulted with Patty Kent, a party to the foregoing agreement, and have fully advised her of her property rights and the legal significance of the foregoing agreement. Patty Kent has acknowledged her fuJl-iand complete understanding of the legal consequences of the foregoing agreement and has freely and voluntarily executed the agreement in my presence. Jane Smith Attorney al Law 1451 W. Yellowstone, St. 32 Casper, WY 82689 (307) 555-1234 (307) 555-3333 fax John Doe Attorney at Law 252 N. Teton Avenue Casper. WY 82623 (307)555-1212 (307) 555-0000 fax 15 �Financial Disclosure Sheet for Jeff Brown Value Location Description Key Bank Savings account 300 SO. Wolcott $738 Casper, WY 82601 Financial Disclosure Sheet for Patty Kent Value Location Description $1,000,000 Andrew Carrol Hilltop Bank 301 Country Club Trust Casper, WY 82609 40IK account A'.C. Trust income (compounded quarterly) Hilltop Bank 301 Country Club Casper. WY 82609 $6,000 Summer cabin 16597 Casper Ml Rd. Casper. WY 82614 $43,700 Hou.se 1355 Laurel Casper, WY 82604 $78,000 Savings account Hillt(4> Bank 301 Country Club Casper. WY 82609 $11,600 401K account WMC 1223 E. I st Street Casper, WY 82601 $54,592 Checking account Hilltop Bank 301 Country Club Casper, WY 82609 $989 1988 Chevrolet 4x4 Pickup Truck 1355 Laurel Casper, WY 82609 $6,700 Household furnishings 1355 Laurel Casper. WY 82609 $8,934 Life Insurance Policy Hilltop Bank (safedeposit box) (children are beneficiaries) 301 Country Club Casper, WY 82609 $125,000 Checking account 1994 Buick Regal C.R. Motis 337 N. Wolcott Casper, WY 826ol Key Bank 300 So. Wolcott Casper. WY 82601 4508 S. Canyon Dr. Casper. WY 82614 $23,720 $1,015 $15,980 Household furnishings 4508 S. Canyon Dr. Casper. WY 82614 Life Insurance Policy (children are beneficiaries) Key Bank (safe deposit box) 300 So. Wolcott Casper, WY 82601 $250,000 total assets $292,103 $650 Exhibit A total assets $1,335,515 Exhibit B 16 �c Addicted to a Dollar By Collette Cox Course: United States and Wyoming Government Instructor: Everett Akkam Assignment: This essay was written as a speech to be delivered to a hypothetical audience. The assignment was a take-home mid term exam. Capitalism's Great Compromise". In a capitalist economy, such as ours, "the majority of workers do not work for themselves but are in the employ of someone else". As Holsworth and Wray point out, "there is an inherent conflict at the root of a capitalist economy. Because the workers do not have a compelling interest in the labor process itself, they will likely desire to restrict output. Because the capitalists have a keen interest in the labor process, they are likely to attempt to push output to a maximum". Frederick Winslow Taylor, "an earlytwentieth-cenlury psychologist of sorts" was interested in "pushing output to this maximum". He wanted to "eliminate excess activity of the worker and undertook a .series of time-and-motion studies to achieve this end". Since workers naturally wanted to Good evening ladies and gentlemen. I have been invited here to speak to you about an extremely important issue that faces all of us today­ consumerism and politics. In the book. American Politics and Everyday Life, by Robert D. Holsworth and J. Harry Wray, the two authors state that "few questions are more important to us than those pertaining to our personal identity. We need to know who we are." They add that "as industrialization spread, it became increasingly necessary to seek identity in a world that constantly called identity into question." Holsworth and Wray point out that there were "many responses to this dilemmma, including a number of positive ones." However, "one dominant response carries a great political significance: 17 �restrict output, he used these studies to force them to the past", they continue to have great political be as “efficient as the machines they tended”. In consequences today. Our self esteem and identity forcing the workers to be “as efficient as these suffered a great blow because of the "compromise" machines they tended”, this idea of "Taylorism” was and "Taylorism", and, in turn, as Holsworth and useful as a means of control. Workers were forced to Wray comment, "...work in the modern United give up their creativity and become “deskilled" in States is far less satisfying than it might realistically the name of increased productivity. They also gave be, that it damages people as much as it contribute-s up their pride in their work, individuality, control, to their self esteem..." As noted previously, and thinking and put them all in the hands of the deskilling was a trait associated with the notion of management. In return, workers received things like "Taylorism". Today, desRilling is useful in shorter work days, better working conditions, and "streamlining operations, decreasing the value of increased wages. This was “Capitalism's so-called labor, and thus increasing the profit potential". great compromise." It “attempted to solve the root However, even though decreasing the value of labor conflict between workers and owners by giving may decrease the prices of material goods, it also laborers more free time and by granting them more has a negative effect on something that should be buying power." According to Holsworth and Wray, considered of much greater importance. "If people "...the workers gains played a conservative role and gain a significant portion of their self esteem and helped to stabilize the economy. First, higher wages identity through work, then lowering the value of were a much less oppressive mechanism of social work also lowers the value of people". So many control than long working hours. Second, worker Americans work today, not because it gives then buying power aided the expansion of the economy pride or meaning, but because they feel they have to for laborers and provided a new market for in order to make enough money to obtain the things increased productive capacity. Finally, the economic in life that they think they will he able to find divisions helped to fragment the workforce, and this happiness and meaning in. Many people feel that gave solace to those who had previously feared the they have no other options available to them...They overthrow of the entire economic order". It is are"addicted to the dollar", as Doug Stone says in evident that this compromise was a "bad bargain". the following song. (Play Addicted to a Dollar, here-Firsl song side Workers traded control over their work, which goes one) hand in hand with self esteem and identity, for the As Doug Stone says in his song, "Addicted to a ability to be controlled through consumption. What Dollar", all the money that we make is usually spent a deal! The loss of identity and self esteem could before we even get it. We "pick up our paychecks never be replaced by material goods, but people and pass them on down the line". In our consumer tried a.s they may...and still do today. "Capitalism's society we are transformed into"consumer beings". great compromise ensured that many would respond Not only does our work "control" us by making us to this dilemma in material terms. Many people feel like the only way we can regain our identity is today try to seek their identity in the things they through purchasing goods, daily floods of acquire". Sadly, this becomes a never-ending cycle advertising also .serve as another political control that devastates many. We strive to earn the that ensures we will not stray from our consumer "almighty dollar" and then try to find happiness in life. As Holsworth and Wray state. "Instructions on consuming, which usually ends in debt and the need how to best spend our spare time are heaped on us to work harder, to make more money, to buy more daily. These instructions overwhelmingly encourage things, and on and on. us to purchase goods which the economy produces". Even though one may think that "Capitalism's great compromise" and "Taylorism" are "things of Advertisements entrench in our minds the notion 18 �that there is no belter possible way to spend our time than in "consumption" activities. Shopping is now a "form of recreation", and malls have been turned into "cultural events" centers. Everything from art shows to bake sales and craft fairs are now held al "the mall". Holsworth and Wray argue that "...the very fact that shopping centers have become the accepted locale for these activities indicates how traditional U.S. culture has been entwined with the consumer ethos. Furthermore, advertising not only tries to control how we spend our time, but also "how we evaluate our personalities". We are unremittingly told that we need whatever is for sale. "The consumer society encourages us to think of ourselves as bundles of needs which must be fulfilled." We are then further controlled by being given message after message about how to go about "fulfilling" these needs. We can satisfy "deep psychic and spiritual needs" by purchasing the "right" product. Moreover, we can achieve "selfworth and status" with product purchases, and "compassionship, affection, and love" can also be bought. Because our consumer and capitalistic society "generates" a "sense of loss" of the desires for compassion, affection, love, and selfworth, advertising can sell us an "image" of what we want as a "substitute for reality". Holsworth and Wray accurately point out that "It is ironic that the source of so much anxiety professes to be the cure". Perhaps the most frightening aspect of advertising, however, is the fact that it controls us by focusing our attention on what "Corporate America" wants instead of focusing on the real problem at hand. "Citizens are encouraged to think about politics only insofar as it affects their level of consumption." If society genuinely wants to change consumer society and "Corporate America", then it will have to show that our desires for dignity, human relationships, rewarding work, and an integrated self are not being met and cannot be met" by turning to more consumption and neglecting the real problems. As Holsworth and Wray state, "Those who wish to alter consumer society" need to focus their energies on "effective political action. And the first step to effective political action is to perceive their predicament clearly". Clearly, our predicament is a sad one, and perhaps we need to look into our hearts for what we need to find. The answer may be found through "higher" thinking. (Play song "Dream High" here--last song on side two) "If you’re gonna dream, dream high". Perhaps this is what we need to do in order to find the solution to our growing problem of consumerism. Dream of things that are "higher" in importance than wordly possessions. Instead of dreaming about how much money we want to have or the new bt)at we hope to have someday, we would be a lot better off to "look into our hearts" and honestly think about what is important in this life. The Biblical tradition offers a much-needed alternative to our consumer culture because as Holsworth and Wray slate, "it moves people to think about traditional concerns of human existence and to retied on matters of self worth, caring, community, and justice. Religion can be an effective antidote to the druglike propaganda that insiduously but relentlessly covers our society". Furthermore, the Biblical tradition is based on a "communal" notion of human'life. This slates that we should "see ourselves as members of a commnunily; individuals morally bound to each other". If stK'iety a,s a whole spent even a small amount of lime being concerned with one another as individuals and "equals", perhaps we would find some sense of identity and selfworth. Instead, we are so caught up in the notion of "self-inleresl" that we lose sight of everything else in life. Holsworth and Wray remark "Not only does the notion of self interest slight the connection that all individuals have to one another, it also narrows and restricts the range of options for the individual. Il speaks about the individual as if they only have needs for money and power. There is very little...that refers to self­ development and self-enhancement, and even less recognizes the contribution that community, compassion, and committment make to constructing a personality that is whole". Can we seriously remain under the delusion that money and power are 19 �the most important things in our lives? What if we obtain money and power? Does this mean we have anything of real value? And, if we do have money and power, how can we consciously feel good about ourselves when their is inequality and sufl'ering around us. I cannot believe that we can go on being so vain and ignorant and continue in our thoughts that each and every one of us, individually, is the most important thing alive. We need to take heed of the warning that almost all religions give: the damage to one’s soul that acccompanies devotion to material wealth". Nolsworth and Wray stale that in order to change people’s ideas of self interest and materialism, "would require a significant change in the operation of major political and economic institutions". People should perhaps be "skeptical of the claim made on behalf of the consumer society because they so frequently turn issues about one’s personal essence into questions of consumer possessions". When one realizes how conceited we are in our thinking that we, individually, are so complex and important, it seems very ironic that we could possibly be convinced that our "personal essence" i.s merely a "question of consumer possessions". We are blinded by our "addiction" and we, as a society, are definitly suffering from this "abnormal condition that has resulted from an excess of consuming". Karl Marx once noted that "religion was the opium of the masses". Perhaps we need to examine our ways more closely and change our "drug of choice". 20 �c Interoffice Memorandum of Law By Karen Moenkhaus Course: Legal Research and Writing II Instructor: Mary Kubichek Assignment: Students were to research a legal issue of their choice. The paper was to be in Blue Book form. The student had to include eight cases. Statement of the Assignment Interoffice Memorandum of Law You asked me to research cases to see how the courts have defined "reasonable accommodation" and how the courts have required employers to accommodate a person with a disability under the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA). Because this is a fairly recent Act, I researched cases in all federal districts. TO; Mary Kubichek, Staff Attorney FROM; Karen Moenkhaus, Paralegal DATE: December 6. 1995 CASE NO. 95-0074 SUBJECT: Client. Ken Thompson, is filing a discrimination suit under the Americans With Disabilities Act against Holster & Bailey Law Firm because they terminated him without accommodating his mental disability. Statement of the Legal Issue Can Ken Thompson require Holster & Bailey Law Firm to accommodate his disability of depression, which prevents him from billing sixty hours per week, under the Americans With Disabilities Act? 21 �discrimination exists if an employer does not provide reasonable accommodation to the known physical or mental limitations of the otherwise qualified individual unless the accommodation would impose an undue hardship. Undue hardship constitutes "significant difficulty or expense." 42 U.S.C.A. § 121II(IO)(I995). In researching Mr. Thompson’s case, I examined case law where the courts defined "reasonable accommodation" and analyzed why the court.s found if the employer did or did not satisfactorily accommodate the employee's disability. The first proposition Is whether an employer meets the ADA requirement by providing some form of reasonable accommodation. The first four cases support this proposition in that the employers all provided some form of reasonable accommodation or else the court held that the accommodation created an undue hardship on the employer. The second proposition deals with violation of the ADA in that the employer did not provide reasonable accommodation for the disabled employee. The last four cases support this second proposition. Statement of the Facts Mr. Ken Thompson was employed with Holster & Bailey Law Firm as an as.sociate attorney since 1993. In this capacity, he wa.s required to bill sixty hours a week. After eight months of working these long stressful hours, he became severely depressed and was unable to function normally in his everyday life. He wa.s fatigued, suffered severe migraine headaches, experienced gastro-intestinal disorders, and had suicidal thoughts. He sought professional help and was put on medication for psychosomatic depression. After six months under a doctor's care, he was still unable to fulfill his responsibilities at work. At that point, the firm gave him an unpaid three-monlhs' leave of absence to resolve his medical problems. When he returned to work, he was expected to bill sixty hours as before. He performed adequately billing at a rate of forty hours per week. However, billing sixty hours caused his depressive symptoms to return. He advised the firm that he could not physically or mentally handle sixty billing hours per week; and, as a result, they terminated him. Mr. Thompson desires to bring a civil action against Holster and Bailey Law Firm for discrimination under the ADA because the firm violated this Act when it terminated him without accommodating his disability. He is seeking compensation for present and future medical expenses, loss of income, compensation for consor­ tium and enjoyment of life, and legal fees. ADA Not Violated Reasonable Accommodations Made Under the ADA, an employer must reasonably accommodate a disabled employee if the employee is able to perform the essential functions of his original job or to provide another position if that position is vacant within a reasonable time. Haysman v.Food Uon. Inc., 893 F. Supp. 1092 (S.D. Ga. 1995). Haysman filed suit against Food Lion for discrimination under ADA on the basis of his disability. Haysman injured his back and knee on the job. He also suffered from a pre-existing emotional disorder which wa.s aggravated by the accident. He was diagnosed with post traumatic stress disorder and depression, and he was impaired with regard to certain psychological functions including thinking, perception, judgment, affect and behavior. After approximately eighteen months, Haysman's doctor declared him totally disabled and unable to work at Food Lion because of his deteriorating mental and emotional state. Haysman argued that Food LioH failed to reasbHdbly accomnioddte Ulltl wheri they (B Discussion "Reasonable accommodation" under the ADA is defined as; (A) Making existing facilities used by employees readily accessible to and usable by individuals with disabilities; and (B) job restructuring, part-time or modified work schedules, reassignment to a vacant position, acquisition or nuxlification of equipment or devices, appropriate adjustment or modifications of examinations, training materials or policies, the provision of qualified readers or interpreters, and other similar accommodations for individuals with disabilities. 42 U.S.C.A. § 12111(9) (199.5). Oridef 42 U.S.C.A. § I2i i2(b)l:5)(l^95). 22 �refused to return him to his former position as assistant manager, (2) refused to transfer him to another full-time position which he could have performed, and (3) failed to reasonably accommodate him in a light-duty job. The court granted the defendant's motion for summary judgment. The court found that Food Lion did not violate the ADA by refusing to return Haysman to the assistant manager position or by refusing to transfer him to another fulltime permanent position. No permanent positions were available that Haysman could perform. The ADA does not require that an employer assign an individual to an already occupied position or create a new position. Haysman at 1105. Haysman missed a lot of work and frequently arrived late or left early. His current and former positions both required regular attendance and he could not perform that essential function. The court subsequently held that the employer could not "reasonably accommodate" Haysman’s disability. As in Haysman, Thompson also suffered from a mental illness. Thompson's mental condition prevented him from performing his job in regard to the requirement of billing sixty hours per week. The law firm never looked at the possibility of transferring Thompson to another position before terminating him. They never even tried to accommodate his disability by requiring fewer billing hours. Unlike Haysman, Thompson was otherwise able to perform his job if he did not have to put in more than forty billing hours. Based upon Haysman, our court might rule that forty billing hours would be a reasonable accommodation. A qualified employee must be able to perform all essential functions of a job, either with or without reasonable accommodation. Hogarth v. Thornburgh, 833 F. Supp. 1077 (S.D.N.Y. 1993). Hogarth was a communications operator for the FBI who was terminated for misconduct attributable to his mental illness. His physician documented that he suffered from a bipolar disorder causing him to experience manic moods which resulted in careles.s and reckless judgment and behavior. He was placed on half-days but his condition worsened. After being on proper medication for several months, his doctor believed he could perform the responsibility of his job with continued treatment. Another medical expert testified that it was likely that Mr. Hogarth would suffer relapses, and he did. Hogarth contended that there were two reasonable accommodations available that would have permitted him to perform the essential functions of his job satisfactorily. First, the FBI could have made arrangements for monitoring of his condition in compliance with medication; and. secondly, the FBI could have limited his access to confidential information. This would have reduced the risk of serious consequences if he would have had a relapse. Hogarth at 1087. The court held that the government carried its burden of showing that there were no feasible accommodations that would have allowed Mr. Hogarth to perform the dutie.s of his position with the FBI. Based on evidence presented, even if the FBI carefully monitored his condition, he was still going to have recurrences of careless and reckless behavior. Access to confidential information was also a critical part of his job. Therefore, the plaintiff could not prevail under the ADA. The United States District Court held that although the employee was discharged solely because of his handicap, he was not otherwise qualified for his position and the complaint was dismissed. Thompson can be distinguished from Hogarth in that Thompson could perform ail essential functions of his job except for the requirement of billing sixty hours. Hogarth's mental deficiencies were much more serious. He was not capable of performing his job duties at all, with or without accommodation. In Thompson's case, we could argue that if the law firm would reduce Thompson's billing hours requirement, Thompson would be able to perform his job. Because Thompson is otherwise qualified for his position, this reduction would constitute a reasonable accommodation A .reasonable accommodation consists of reassigning the handicapped employee or making changes in job requirements that do not create undue hardship for the employer. In Guice-Mills v. Derwinski, F.2d 794 (2d Cir. 1992), the plaintiff was a former nurse who brought a suit to recover for discrimination because of her disability of a depressive illness. Her medication regime interfered with her ability to arrive at work on time. The court 23 �ruled that she was not discriminated against by the Department of Veterans Administration Hospital because her medical condition rendered her not "otherwise qualified" to satisfy the justified requirements for a head nurse position. She could not make it to work on time. The hospital offered to reassign her to a staff nursing position that would be compatible with her medical condition and at no decrease in grade, salary, or benefits. The court ruled this offer was a reasonable accommodation. The plaintiff quit because she thought the other position wa.s a demotion, even though her salary, benefits, and grade did not change. The court dismissed the handicap discrimination claim holding that the offer of the staff nursing position was a reasonable accommodation. In our case. Mr. Thompson was not offered another position or modifications to meet his disability. In Guice-Mills, the employee was offered another suitable position. We could argue that no "reasonable accommodations" were made on the part of the employer. We may have to show that his billing forty hours instead of the sixty hours would not create an undue hardship on the employer. Voluntary relinquishment constitutes another reasonable accommodation under the ADA. Emrick v. Lihhey-Oweiis-Ford Co., 875 E Supp. 393 (E.D. Tex. 1995). Emrick, an employee with Libbey-Owens, was diagno.sed with multiple sclerosis but told the company he was able to continue in his present job. Later Libbey-Owens had to reduce their workforce, and they attempted to reassign Emrick. Emrick refused the offered position and informed the company at that lime of new medical restrictions on his physical activity. Because of these new restrictions. Libbey-Owens was unable to accommodate Emrick at the facility where he was presently liKated. Next they attempted to locale him in another position at one of their other facilities but none were available. Emrick then filed a discrimination suit under the ADA on the basis that Libbey-Owens failed to accommodate his disability. The defendant filed a motion for summary judgment and another motion for partial summary judgment. The motion for summary judgment was denied on the grounds that several employees volunteered to be reassigned so Emrick could have one of their positions. The court found that voluntary relinquishment was a reasonable accommodation. However, the employer did not have any positions available to reassign those employees who had volunteered to be reassigned. On the other hand, the court granted the defendant's partial summary judgment, ruling that the employer did not have to modify its operations to benefit only Emrick. The court held that the ADA wa.s "not intended to give persons with disabilities preferential treatment, but rather [wasj intended to provide them with the same opportunities as their nondisabled counterparts." Emrick at 397. In other words, the disabled person was not to receive special treatment, but equal treatment with nondisabled employees. The court found that Libbey-Owens was not required to offer Emrick a transfer to another facility as an attempt to rea.sonably accommodate his disability because this was not Libbey-Owen's regular practice. Although Emrick's disability was physical and Thompson's disability is mental, both constitute disabilities under the ADA and thus require reasonable accommodation. Based on Emrick, we could argue that if the law firm cannot modify Thompson’s job to accommodate his disability, the firm might have to look at offering him another position if there is one vacant that he is qualified to do and if it does not create an undue hardship. Of course if there is not another position available, the firm would not be required to create a position for Thompson. In analyzing the four ca.ses above, the employers all met the requirement of providing reasonable accommodations to meet the employee’s disability. The courts held that reasonable accommodation constituted the option of restructuring the job duties in order for the qualified individual to perform his job. If modifications were not possible, the employer had to reassign the disabled person to another position if there was a vacancy. However, the employer did not have to create a new position or replace another person for the benefit of accommodating the disabled employee. If any of these accommodations created an 24 �undue hardship on the employer, the courts held that the employer was not obligated to comply with the accommodation. ADA Violated Reasonable Accommodations Were Not Made Transferring the disabled employee to another available position would constitute a reasonable accommodation if the accommodation did not impose an undue hardship on the employer. In Stradley v. Lafourche Communications. Inc., 869 E Supp. 442 (E.D. La. 1994), the issue was whether the defendant violated the ADA in terminating the plaintiff. The defendant filed a motion for summary judgment. The court denied this motion because Stradley did qualify as disabled under the ADA. He suffered from depression and acute anxiety caused by stress from his supervisory position. Consequently, Stradley missed lots of work. Regular attendance was an essential function of his job. Without accommodation Stradley was unable to perform this essential function of his job. Stradley argued that Lafourche should have accommodated his condition or transferred him to a less stressful position he was capable of performing. Lafourche contended that to accommodate Stradley would have imposed an undue hardship on them due to extended leave expenses. The court found that other positions were available al the time Stradley was terminated in which he was capable of performing. The court held that transferring Stradley to one of those available positions would have been reasonable and would not have imposed an undue hardship on Lafourche. Stradley is analogous with our case in that Thompson was also terminated for not being able to perform his job requirements without accommodation. If Thomp.son's current position cannot be accommodated by reducing his hours because this would cause an undue hardship on the law firm, the employer would need to reassign him to another available position that Thompson could perform as another means of reasonable accommodation. The law firm would have to show that the accommodation would create an undue hardship on them. Under the ADA, reasonable modifications in policies or procedures must be made to avoid discrimination unless these modifications "fundamentally" change the nature of the employer's service or activity, and the modifications cannot create an undue financial or administrative burden for the employer. Dees v. Austin Travis County Menial Health & Mental Retardation, 860 F. Supp. 1186 (W.D. Tex. 1994). Dees was a mental patient and also an advocate for the rights of the mentally ill. She participated in many community activities for the mentally ill and liked to attend the board meetings of the Austin Travis County Mental Heath and Mental Retardation Center. She brought action against the board of trustees alleging that the trustees held meetings at times inaccessible to individuals suffering from certain types of mental illnesses. Dees was on a prescribed psychotropic medication that had a sedative side effect. Because of this sedative side effect, she was unable to function in the morning hours before 10:00 a.m. The court ruled that the board of trustees violated the ADA by holding meetings ttx) early in the morning which prevented the attendance of patients who suffered drowsiness from effects of medication for mental illness. Dees al 1186. The board failed to prove that changing the time of its meetings would have fundamentally altered the board and the services that it provided or created an undue administrative or financial burden. The court held that moving the meeting times to later in the morning constituted reasonable accommodation under the ADA to avoid discrimination against individuals with mental disabilities. Both public and private entities are covered under the ADA. 42 U.S.C.A. § 12111(2) (1995). Public entities are defined under 42 U.S.C.A. § 12131 (I(B)(1995) as "any department, agency, .. of a Slate or States or local government." Although Dees dealt with a public entity, we can apply Dees to our case in lhe fact that both appellants needed accommodation. Thompson needed his billing hours changed in order for him to function in his job as well a,s his life. Dees also needed an accommodation that would allow her to attend the meetings. To meet the ADA requirements of accommodation, lhe firm should accommtxlate Thompson by letting him bill 25 �only forty hours per week instead of the required sixty because they know that he can perform his job with less billing hours. We would have to show that letting Thompson bill fewer hours would not create an undue financial or administrative burden for the law firm. The ADA requires employers to consider, as a reasonable accommtxlation, reassignment of the disabled employee to a job which that individual can perform or restructure hi.s present position. Pedigo v. P.A.M. Truiisporls. Inc., 891 F. Supp. 482 (W.D. Ark. 1994). Pedigo was an over the road truck driver for P.A.M. Transport. He held this position for eleven years until he sutTered a heart attack. He was on medical leave until his termination. The lower court awarded damages to Pedigo based on the finding that the employer violated the ADA in failing to consider reassignment to a vacant position in which the employee was able to perform. P.A.M. Transport moved for judgment as a matter of law. The appellant court denied the motion. The court recognized that one reasonable accommodation under the ADA was to require an employer to reassign an employee to a vacant position for which he was qualified if other forms of accommodation had failed. The Act did not intend for the employer to create a new job for the disabled employee. "'Bumping' another employee out of a position to create a vacancy (was) not required." Pedigo al 487. In Pedigo, the employer did not attempt to accommodate Pedigo in any manner. Pedigo is similar to Thompson's case in that the law firm did not offer any accommodations to Thompson. They let him have three months off to get "his life in order." and then expected him to meet the sixty hour billing requirement when he relumed to work. We could argue that the law firm did discriminate against Thompson's disability by not olTering any accommodations. "Reasonable" must be both practical and proportional to costs in the analysis of claims to accommodate disabilities. In Vande Zoitde v. Stale of Wisconsin Department ofAdministration, 44 E3d 538 (7th Cir. 1995). the plaintiff was paralyzed from the waist down. Because of her paralysis, she developed 26 pressure ulcers which required her to stay at home for several weeks periodically. Zande wanted to work al home during these periods and requested a desk-lop computer for home, even though she already had a laptop. Her supervisor refused. The employer argued that they did not have to reasonably accommodate her pressure ulcers because the ulcers did not fit the statutory definition of a disability. The court, however, "held that Zande's pressure ulcers (werel a part of her disability, and therefore a part of what the State of Wisconsin had a duty to accommodatereasonably." Zande al 544. The jury, nevertheless, concluded that the plaintiffs request stretched the concept of "reasonable accommodation." The court held that an employer was not required to accommodate a disability by allowing the disabled worker to work al home without supervision. The jury determined that the request wa.s an "unreasonable” accommodation and that the employer had already made a significant number of reasonable accommodations for this individual. The plaintiff had also requested that the employer lower sinks and counter tops on all floors from 36" to 34" to accommodate persons in wheelchairs. The employer lowered the counter on the floor where the plaintiff was located and said she could use the bathroom sink which was already 34". The court agreed that to comply with her full request would be an undue hardship on the employer because of the cost. "The duty to reasonably accommodate is satisfied when the employer does what is necessary to enable the disabled worker to work in reasonable comfort." Zande at 546. In Zande, the employee wanted preferential treatment instead of equal treatment. The court held that Zande’,s requests to work at home and lower all the sinks and counters were unreasonable accommodations. In Thompson’s case the jury will have to consider "reasonableness" on his request for a reduction in billing hours a.s in the Zande case. According to the definition of "reasonable" held in Zande, we could argue that Thompson's request would be a reasonable accommodation and not an undue hardship because the law finn would not lo.se that much money in reducing Thompson's hours. We would have to determine an approximate figure. However, this �definition is subjective and the court has great discretion in applying their definition of “reasonableness.” In summary under the above analysis, Thompson would have a strong case against the law firm. All the employers in the above four cases violated the ADA because they did not make reasonable accommodations for their employee's disability. Thompson was capable of performing his duties as an associate attorney except for the requirement of billing sixty hours. Before terminating Thompson, the firm did not attempt to accommodate him under any of the method.s that the courts held to be “reasonable accommodations.” The courts held that “reasonable accommodations” included: 1. Restructuring or modifying the job to meet the employee's disability, or 2. reassignment to a vacant position that the disabled person can perform, and 3. these accommodations cannot cause undue hardship on the employer. APPENDIX 1. Dees V. Austin Travis County Mental Health & Mental Retardation, 860 F. Supp. 1186 (W.D. Tex. 1994). 2. Emrick v. Lihhev-Owens-Ford Co.. 875 F. Supp. 393 (E.D. Tex. 1995). 3. Guice-Mills v, Derwinski, 967 F.2d 794 (2d Cir. 1992). 4. Havsman v. Food Lion, Inc., 893 F. Supp. 1092 (S.D. Ga.l995). 5. Hogarth v. Thornburgh. 833 F. Supp. 1077 (S.D.N.Y. 1993). 6. Pedigo V. P.A.M. Transport, Inc., 891 F. Supp. 482 (W.D. Ark. 1994). 7. Stradley v. Lafourche Communications. Inc.. 869 F. Supp. 442 (E.D. La. 1994), Recommendations 1. Obtain a copy of Holster & Bailey's employee handbook if they have one. 2. Investigate the reasons for Mr. Thompson's termination. 3. Obtain copies of Mr. Thompson's performance evaluations. 4. Check Mr. Thompson's past employment record. 5. Obtain copies of his medical history. 6. Establish what the firm earns at forty billing hours versus sixty billing hours. Calculate what the firm would monetarily lose in reducing Thompson's billing hours from sixty to forty based on his billing rate, collected billings, the firm's overhead, and the firm's profit margin. 7. Determine what the difference in the firm’s profit would be if they changed Thompson’s • billing method from actual billing hours to value billing (or fixed rates). 8. Vande 2ande v. State of Wisconsin Department of Administration, 44 F.3d 538 (7th Cir. 1995). 27 �Bacterial Organisms By Hal H Hutchinson Course: Microbiology Instructor: Mary K. Katherman Assignment: The student was to write an essay to introduce a microorganism to a general audience. He could choose the microorganism. environments known. Bacterial life inhabit bleak ocean depths surrounding subterranean sea floor vents emanating scalding water from deep within the earth’s crust. They inhabit the far ends of the planet, from icy polar region to the steamy tropics. Bacteria also inhabit the most local addresses, such as on food in our refrigerators, in municipal wastewater treatment systems, and even in our bodies themselves. Actually there are numerous bacteria in the human body that sustain and enhance bodily functions. The bacterial life form has evolved over billions of years, and, although so tiny that they have to be magnified many times for us to observe them, the evidence of their presence is often quite obvious. Complete Title: Bacterial Organisms: Opportunistic and Creative Means of Sustaining Life The wide and varied species of bacterial life (Kingdom: Procaryotae) present a most interesting topic for study. Contrasting this most basic life form with the lifestyles of ’’higher" organisms, including human life, may lead one to question which life form indeed is the more complex and adaptable in an environment of constant change. The adaptability of bacterial life is nothing less than incredible. Bacteria are known to inhabit practically every corner of the earth, including the most inhospitable 28 �Perhaps most incredible to the neophyte student of humans can reap from a more complete bacterial physiology is that these tiny objects are understanding of these "primitive" life forms. indeed live, viable organisms. Any doubt of this is Applications of this information are now being quickly dispelled upon initial inspection under a sought to advance health care, industry, agriculture, microscope. Certain bacterial species • exhibit and other endeavors so beneficial to society. A major emphasis in developing beneficial uses vigorous motility, thus providing convincing evidence the organisms are indeed alive and viable. of bacteria is the field of genetic recombinant In today's society terms such as "downsizing" technology, otherwise known as genetic and "survival of the fittest" are used to define an engineering. Recombinant technology involves environment where the work force is expected to isolating desired bacterial genetic characteristics. In meet the challenges of shrinking resources and an the form of chromosomal genes contained in the ever growing population. Bacteria have been deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of the bacterial cells, struggling, and thriving, under these very and introducing those desired characteristics into conditions for time immemorial. Bacteria are the the bacterial species desired. The bacterial life form is known to possess a myriad of genes for unique master opportunists. Their efficiency is uncanny. enzymes, or metabolic catalysts, that allow tor the An interesting example of bacterial adaptability bacteria to be so successful and adaptable in a wide highlights the development of resistance to anti­ range of habitats. Recombinant technology seeks to bacterial drugs. Whereas in the not too distant past isolate these genes responsible for these desirable medical science considered absolute control of characteristics, and to duplicate those bacterial pathogens possible, that option is now characteristics for the benefit of mankind. known to be practically unachievable. Much of the past emphasis In genetic Although the species of pathogenic bacteria is engineering has been in the health care field. quite small in relation to the aggregate bacterial However, the growing trend is toward applied species, pathogenic bacterial species do exist and technology and goods for the marketplace. cause a great many problems. Antibacterial drugs Entrepreneurs now realize fine profits can be reaped are developed to control the bacteria causing these from bacterial applications. Accordingly, problems. The current observation is that bacteria significant funding is being appropriated to develop develop resistance to antibacterial drugs almost as genetically engineered applications. For example, quickly as the antibacterials are introduced. The applications are being developed lor enhancing opportunistic bacteria develop this resistance by virtue of their amazing abilities to evolve rapidly. In gold mining methods. Bacteria with an affinity for fact, most bacterial species reproduce over one gold are used to "mine" gold deposits. Likewise, hundred times faster than other life forms. This rale applications are being developed to hasten cleanup of proliferation provides for the rapid development and lessen the effects of oil spills in critical marine of bacteria with resistant strains to antibacterials. environments. Bacterial species with an affinity for Thus a continual effort is necessary to develop the crude oil hydrocarbons are used to lessen the effective antibacterial drugs that can stay one step harmful ecological damage and associated monetary liabilities most often associated with oil ahead of the bacterial resistance. Volumes of information has been learned about spills. Currently numerous other beneficial bacteria species in the past 200 or so years, since applications of bacteria are being developed in the invention of reliable microscopy. However, only laboratories around the world. Obviously bacteria are truly an amazing life in the last 50 or so years have we come to recognize the intricacy of this life form. We now are form. Current study reveals a multitude of beginning to understand the enormous benefits we applications for taking advantage of the many 29 �desirable characterislics of these organisms. We admire the versatility of bacteria, and the efficient and opportunistic means of their sustaining life. We now realize the special niche bacteria reserve in the realm of life. It is ironic that until recently the bacteria have been considered primitive life forms. We now understand the bacteria are quite complex, and through their evolution perhaps more intricate than the commonly accepted higher organisms, even human life. Further investigation is necessary to unlock the many benefits bacterial life- can provide. 30 �c Interview with 21>i^ew Bzdak By Louie Kistler Course: Cultural Anthropology Instructor: Dr. Barbara Mueller Assignment: Using an assigned outline, the student was to interview a person from another country and make comparisons with the United States culture. Zbignew Bzdak is forty years old and is from Radamsko, Poland, a city about the size of Casper. He left Poland in 1979 on an adventure expedition to South America with a group of Polish kayakers from the University. The government in Poland at the time was Pre-Solidarity and Zbignew's group had departed one week before the Pope visited Poland, which Zbignew indicated was the catalyst for the Solidarity Movement. This was unprecedented travel for common Poles, but they were able to put the trip together through the Universily'.s contacts in the government. Zbignew traveled for two years, extending his trip several times since he knew that once he returned to Poland he would not have been able to leave again. December 13, 1981, Poland's government declared martial law; I could tell by the emphasis in his voice over the phone that this date held particular importance to Zbignew. I don't believe it was because it marked the beginning of his self-exile from Poland and eventual American citizenship, but rather a Polish national pride as a marker for the beginning of their independence and the dismantling of the Soviet Union. Zbignew was to have returned to Poland on December 20, 1981; however, with martial law instituted, the news and information blackout from Poland left him with no means to discover what was happening in his country. With only a week to make his decision whether to return to Poland or remain in Lima, Peru, Zbignew and his companions turned to a 31 �television station in Peru and did interviews about their concern of the lack of information coming out of Poland. The Polish government, through the Polish embassy in Lima, advised their group that the government in Poland was very displeased with their interviews. They learned that "the Polish government was waiting for them to return and would like to interview them for an extended peritxi of time.’’ The adventurers' response was more organized protests in Lima against the communist Polish government. He then entered the United States requesting and obtaining political asylum. He now holds United States citizenship and lives in Chicago. The language of Poland is Polish, which is a Slavic language. He said it is similar to Czechoslovakian, Yugoslavian, Bulgarian, and Ukrainian. I inquired if Russian was also a Slavic language, and he said that Russian had very few similarities with the Polish language. The tone of his voice revealed a reluctance to be ass(x.'iatcd with Russia in any way. I asked if there were other nationalities that the Polish people made fun of or joked about, and he told me only the Germans, the Austrian-Hungrians, and the Russians. Interestingly, it is these three peoples who have historically subjugated the Polish people. Potatoes are Poland's staple food. Zbignew said that Poles eat a great deal of bread and pork, but very little beef, as the cows are primarily used for milk. A classic dish is pirogi which is like ravioli only bigger and is stulTed with cheese and potato. On special occasions, the piroge would be stuffed with meal, cabbage or blue berries. A typical daily set of meals would be: Breakfast: lea, thin sliced rye bread and ham about 7:00 A.M. 2nd Breakfast; coffee, tea, thin sliced rye bread and ham, or a kaiser roll called bulka about 11:00 AM. Dinner: potato soup, potatoes and pork, cabbage, salad, and tea about 2:00 P.M. Io 3:00 P.M. Supper; light meal of ham or sausage and bread with tea about 7:00 P.M. Housing in Radomsko and other cities was a planned community of apartment complexes called blocks. Each block of apartment complexes had different architecture so there was variety In the landscape of the city. Where people worked, shopped, and sent their children to school was all within walking distance of about a mile from where people lived. Apartments were owned by the government and there was a waiting list of eight to fifteen years for an apartment. In the rural areas, private ownership of land was the rule and people lived on their land. Clothing for the Polish people was very similar to our own and the utensils for eating were like those used in Western Europe with simitar rules of etiquette. He said the rules of etiquette were very organized and there was an unified accepted manner for using the utensils. These rules were followed by everyone and the method for punishment if one stepped outside these rules of etiquette was public humiliation or social ostracism. Weapons were very similar to those used in Western Europe. However private ownership of guns was illegal. As for arts, he said that the music wa.s like Western European music with everything from rock-n-roll to classical. Musical instruments were similar to ours with the most common instrument being the accordion. There was a cultural emphasis on plays, and poetry was the venue for the people to express their feelings without being censored by the government. By the use of the metaphorical language of poetry, the people had a pathway for self­ expression and for sharing their opinions. Plays and poetry were also a UkiI for the Polish language to survive when they were ruled by other cultures. Zbignew told me that dance was very important to the Poles; in fact, one of the things he misses most in this country are the dances. The polonez is a traditional dance for which Chopin composed a great deal of music. This is a patriarchal form of dance where the wedding party would enter the church dancing for the marriage. The games and sports the Polish people play were similar to ours with an emphasis on soccer. The social significance of the outcome of the games and the social status involved wa.s like ours. The family was an extended family of up to three generations living in the same apartment with the father as the head of the family. However, there was equality of the sexes in the workplace. Within the 32 �family, the roles of father and mother followed ours tn this country. There was daycare for the children so both parents could work and the government provided family services within walking distance of the apartment complexes. Divorce was more accepted in the society than I imagined. Zbignew said this was because the Catholic church had no real competition, and the Church did not enforce the Church doctrines in a black, and white manner. The reasons for divorce were like those in the United States, with no social stigma. His own sister was divorced and she was a professional in the field of environmental engineering. Sexual mores were like those of other Western European countries. If there was a death of a young spouse, a non­ working woman might go back to her birth family and live with them. However, this would de^nd upon the size of the birth family’s apartment, the size of the extended family living there, and whether or not she had her own apartment. Since the waiting period for an apartment was so long, if she had acquired an apartment she would most likely stay in the apartment rather than move in with her birth family. As mentioned earlier, land ownership in the rural areas was private and land was owned by the father and passed to his sons as in other European countries. Land ownership in the cities was by the government, a.s were.the apartment complexes. Social control outside the family was controlled by the Communist government and the Catholic Church, with the government controlling where people lived and worked. Poland's religious views were those of the Roman Catholic Church. Zbignew said the greatest difference he noticed between the United States and Poland wa.s in the "ton.s of excess” of the United States. He said that money didn’t hold any significance for him in Poland, unlike money here in the United States. This was due to the extreme inflation in Poland where the value of the money wasn't stable and fluctuated daily, which resulted in the saving of money a.s pointless. The Polish economy was stabilized by the communist government, but there was not enough material goods for the consumption desired. Material goods distribution was controlled by the government, which was in turn controlled by money and influence. So in some places the material goixJs matched the desired consumption, but only for the powerful. Due to the housing shortages, the extended family in Poland was necessary. wherea.s here, with plenty of housing, the nuclear family prevails. His knowledge of the world was obtained by "learning how to read between the lines." He told me that the "wealth of America is overwhelming." In Poland the government offered economic security, but the price was an oppressive political climate. This oppressive political atmosphere helped adhere the people to each other, and with each other, they found ways to express their anger and disappointment and their joy and achievements of their lives. Expression among friends becante an important part of Polish life; where here in the United States. Zbignew says we have the freedom of public expression and don't treasure the closeness that can occur among friends. Zbignew loved South America, as its people seem to him most like the Polish people. The South American people "like to talk a lot. are open and cordial, and make friends quick." He pointed out to me that Americans don't openly express their emotions like "joy and sadness"; and that if he goes k) an American home, there is "no singing and dancing" unlike what he experienced in Poland and South America. He said in America "you play the game" to succeed and fit into society. 1 asked him what he meant and he told me that we have a country of strict conduct governed by rules and laws, and if you follow the rules and laws, it is easy to fit in here. Every action or anything one wants to do in this country has a rule or law to say how you are supposed to do it. I had never thought that we had rules and laws for everything, but we do. His pointed reference to the lack of Americans expressing their emotions of the moment I think is a difference in cultural values. I think individuality, which is a major part of what our culture is based upon, has come to be seen as a need to close one's self off from others to protect the individuality. It is as if one's individuality would be contaminated by the sharing of one’s emotional life through conversation, laughter, tears, dances, songs, and close physical contact. 33 �Sexuality, Sensuality and Repression Among the Bourgoisie By Tillie McGee Course: Western Civilization II Instructor: Dr. James O’Neill Assignment: Students were asked to write a research paper on a topic of their choosing, emphasizing secondary sources and synthezing a sizeable body of material. The student could choose any topic related to the subject matter of the course and approved by the instructor. (EJd. note: This paper was originally much longer than it appears here. We have cut many excellent examples so that we might print it in our limited space. These cuts also account for discrepancies in the footnoting.) Eighteenth and nineteenth-century European sexuality consisted of a variety of attitudes among the bourgeoisie toward eroticism and sexual repression. The strictest religious doctrine held that sexual intercourse should be viewed as necessary only for procreational purposes, and that sexual‘pleasure was 34 sinful. Other religious groups believed that marital sex was most ideal if it was moderately pleasurable, avoiding excess. Pleasure and attraction were thought to provide incentive for procreation and to prevent a woman from seeking sexual gratiTication through adultery. The most popular view of the medical �profession was that too much sex was unhealthy while a few doctors preached that too little sex would result in various physical maladies. Another widely accepted notion of medical experts was feminine frigidity. Very few in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries accepted the possibility that women possessed the physical capacity for experiencing arousal or sexual pleasure. The common stereotype of Victorian sexuality holds that most people believed sexuality to be vulgar and obscene and the act of procreation to be an embarrassing necessity of marriage. Evidence found in documentation and personal correspondences among the bourgeoisie of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, us well as popular art and literature, suggests drastic differences between common theory and common practice of sexuality in British society. Literature In eighteenth-century Britain, altitudes among the middle-classes toward sexual behavior were expressed in many forms of literature, including newspapers, pornography, and novels. Politicians were insulted in newspapers with sexual commentary such as the referral to Pitt the Younger a.s "The Bottomless Pitt...stiff to everyone but a lady." Newspapers commonly included advertisements for male prostitutes, abortion pills, remedies for sexually transmitted diseases and various aphrodisiacs. According to Lawrence Stone, author of The Family, Sex and Marriage in England, 15(X)-1800, "the three most common subjects in the advertisement columns of eighteenth-century periodicals were cures for venereal disease, cosmetics and books—in that order." Some of Slone's examples from 1785 are The Morning Chronicle and The Whitehall Evening Post, which advertised "Leake's Genuine Pills," "The Specific." "Lisbon Diet Drink," "Dr. Solander's Vegetable Juice." and "Dr. Keyser's Pills." all cures for venereal disease. Pornography also emerged in the 1770s, with The Covenl Garden Magazine or Amorous Repository, which included sex stories and advertisements for brothels and prostitutes. In Education of the Senses, Peter Gay remarks on the extensive availability of pornographic "prints and books to satisfy the most avid demand." The tremendous supply and demand for obscene materials existed in blatant disregard for government censorship against '"indecent materials," despite the belief of legislators that their efforts to rid bookstores of pornography were highly successful. According to Gay, banned materials would either be moved to new shops or the owners of the old shops would find belter methods of hiding them.' Paul Gabriel-Bouce's anthology. Sexuality in Eighteenth-Century Britain, includes a piece by Peter Wagner involving a form of pornography in eighteenth-century divorce court. Trial reports concerning rape, adultery, incest, and sexual crimes committed by priests were published and made available to the general public. Divorce trials were among these reports and included explicit details of sexual exploits in marriages. Also in Gabriel-Bouce, John Valdimir Price writes on "Patterns of Sexual Behaviour in some EighteenthCentury Novels." He cites Clarissa as the first novel in English fiction to present a heroine who perceives sex "as involving reciprocal pleasure, and she endows sex with values and emotional associations that her fictional predecessors did not." Clanssa is placed in a position of either marrying and having sex with a man she does not love or running away with a well-known promiscuous bachelor’ Price mentions Joseph Andrews as a novel that dispels the myth that a man is always ready to have sex. and will never turn down any offers. . Art Nudity in art was generally perceived as an acceptable expression of eroticism, provided sexual connotations were left to the viewer’s imagination. According to Gay. nudes were probably the most popular art form in the nineteenth century. Sculptures were on display inside and outside public buildings. Paintings adorned roofs and ceilings." Some other examples of nude sculptures that Gay offers in The Tender Passion include Death of Able. 1877, Antonin-Jean-Paul Caries, depicting Abel lying in a prone position; The Bicycle, ca. 1895-1900, Felix 35 �activity, the simple rule still remains that eroticism is only acceptable as long as it is directed toward procreation in marriage. Stone says that in "general theology...intercourse was forbidden during period.s when there could be no conception, which at that time were believed to be limited to the nine months of pregnancy.”''" One critic of Catholic sexual ideology was John Cotton, a Puritan who appreciated the "joys" of marriage and "ridiculed the Catholic cult of virginity." Oskar Pfister, in a letter to Sigmund Freud, wrote, "the Reformation is fundamentally nothing other than an analysis of Catholic sexual repression.”” Chaipentier, a girl on a bicycle: Magnetism, ca. 1884, Per Hasselberg, a man reaching for a women across a framed, nude painting in the center. In The Dark Angel, Fraser Hardson furnishes some prints of Philip Wilson Steer and Frederic Leighton. Steer, who began painting in the late nineteenth­ century. portrayed feminine sexuality in his most popular artworks. A Summers Evening illustrates three adolescent girls, naked on a beach, dressing in preparation to return home as dusk sets in.'- In Steer's Sleep, a naked woman lies sleeping on a sofa, one leg draped over the edge, fondling her breast. Leighton's paintings are portrayals of Venus and Psyche. In Venus Disrobing for the Bath, 1867, Venus, looking down at her feet, is holding such an unnatural pose that is cleady meant to serve as erotic. The Bath of Psyche, 1890. is a view of Psyche disrobing before entering a pool. Philosophes and Romantics In England, the Philosophes began to think of sexuality as being a necessary component of nature in providing happiness, and something to be examined more closely.-'" Enlightened groups attacked the Christian faiths for their practice of sexual repression and denial.-' Taking a very liberal stand on "free sex," Hume said that he doubted that a monogamous marriage was the correct remedy for "individual desires with social needs."’’ Outside the religious sphere, clearly eighteenth-century sexuality no longer carried taboos for public discussion. Foreshadowing Freudian theory, philosophical humanists believed that sensuality was the underlying catalyst of all human motivation. Diderot said that while sexual arousal could be dangerous to one's ability to reason rationally, "There is a bit of testicle at the bottom of our most sublime sentiments and most refined tenderness."-' Researchers also began to form opinions on the power of the human sex drive. Toward the end of the nineteenth century. Dr. Benjamin Ball, University of Paris medical professor, agreed that sexual instinct probably played the largest role in influencing behavior among individuals.-* Although romantics tended to form a general consensus with philosophers on the subject of erotic adventure, advocates of Romanticism criticized Philosophes for treating sensuality as a purely physical act, dismissing the emotions of love and affection. Romance novels combined love with eroticism, and fanned the flames with extensive Theological Repression Religious views of sexuality were no more relaxed in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries than they are in the twentieth century. Peter Gay, in The Tender Passion, suggests that a classic example of Catholic denial of human sexuality was Pope Pius' pronunciation of the Immaculate Conception in 1854. If Christ was bom without sin, and sex has been accepted a.s a shameful, sinful act, then Mary could not have had sex. Devout Catholics accepted this unnatural possibility from Pius, while secular Catholics felt somewhat embarrassed by his bold creativity. Gay offers many examples of the Catholic notoriety for preaching sexual repression and teaching sexual guilt. St. Augustine convinced many Christians that, before the Fall, sex was without sin. Lust became a creation of consequence resulting from Eve's fateful mistake. St. Jerome i.s famous for his assertion that "all ardent love for one's own wife is adultery," eliminating the legitimacy of a man's sexual attraction for his own wife. The conflicting secular view of Capellanus held that one had to be "capable of doing the work of Venus" to be able to love.'' While Christian doctrine may have been unsuccessful in completely obliterating sexual 36 �imagination and fantasy. Romantics spent less time talking specifically about criticisms of sexual repression, or their thoughts on sexual freedom, and more time just practicing their beliefs.* They showed a tendency to view sex as having a causal relationship with love. Medical Views Masturbation became an explosive topic in the eighteenth-century beginning with the 1710 publication of Ononia or the heinous sin of Self­ pollution, and all its frightful Consequences in both Sexes considered, written by an anonymous clergyman. The fact that the book sold so many copies, (38,000 in nineteen editions by 1760), reveals an apparent social ‘anxiety’ about the act and its consequences. According to Dr. Tissot, a famous Swiss physician, those consequences were "lassitude, epilepsy, convulsions, boils, disorders of the digestive, respiratory or nervous systems, and even death." He offered suggestions for remedying the ill effects of masturbation, but believed the habit itself to be “incurable."* Dr. Henry Maudsley, an avid believer that masturbation caused insanity, originally suggested that it was possibly an inherited disease that might disappear once one was removed from one's family. Maudsley changed his theory on masturbation many times, finally concluding that there was no possible cure.* The closest Stone could come to finding medically distributed sex manuals in eighteenth-century Europe was a pamphlet that offered advice on sexual positions, written in 1716. The author, French Dr. Venette of La Rochelle, agreed with clergy that any positions that involved sitting or standing, or giving the woman the dominant lop position should be avoided. He did, however, feel that since sex from the rear wis a normal occurrence among animals, it could therefore be seen as an acceptable position for humans, who are a part of the natural environment. Venette said this position would likely increase the probability of conception, and that it was safer during pregnancy.” In the nineteenth century. Dr. Anton Nystrom, a Swedish physician, belonged to the minority of those experts who recognized the difference between a woman's biological nature and her societal restraints. Nystrom wrote In woman, as well as in man. it is undoubtedly the sexual instinct, and not the problemmical desire of propagation, which attracts the one to the opposite sex. The sexual instinct belongs to the female organization just a-s much as to that of the male, even if ascetic principles and social conditions to a great extent suppress them. Many have proclaimed that the sexual instinct plays no important role whatever in woman, and if it is strong in some individuals it is a sign of moral degeneration or improper voluptuousness. Nystrom blamed sexual repression on Christianity, claiming that religion "has forced woman to suppress her sexual instinct." In his study of the effects of sexual abstinence, Dr. Nystrom interviewed several women who spoke openly about their sexuality, revealing little-known facts about the female libido. Nystrom was also among those who believed that irregularity in intercourse or masturbation would lead to "insomnia, headaches and hallucinations."” Dr. Frederich Siebert, a skin specialist and sexologist in Munich was another physician who acknowledged sexual desire and the potential for women to feel erotic pleasure. Siebert suggested that probable reasoning behind the notion that women did not enjoy sex as enthusiastically as men could be that most men were “clumsy" during sex. gratifying their needs kx) quickly for women to be satisfied.*' Dr. Auguste Debay, a retired army surgeon embellished on Siebert's reasoning, advising men to lake intercourse more slowly, giving women more lime to experience sexual pleasure through mild genital contact.*’ Dr. James Foster Scott admitted woman's “erotic desire,” but passed it off as Insignificant, merely a servant to her ultimate destiny for maternal obligation." In contrast to Nyslrom's theory, those medical advisors who accepted moderation as a healthy alternative adopted Aristotle's concept of semenal conservation. Dr. Venette claimed /hat "sexual excess shortens life," as Aristotle regarded semen to be 37 �"essential to good mental and physical health," leading to the assumption that semen should therefore be preserved for longer life expectancy. Dr. Tissot claimed that one ounce of semen wa,s equal to forty ounces of blood, therefore one ejaculation would be more life-threatening than forty blood-lettings. A second reason for moderation was the popular belief that the “consititutional characteristics” of a child reflected the physical condition of its parents at the time of conception. Fathers who spent loo much sexual energy and mothers who were sexually mistreated would conceive sickly children with a small chance of survival.'" Marriage and Adultery Marital happiness was extremely dependent upon sexual compatibility and mutual attraction between husband and wife. People had affairs when their desire for their partner began to disappear. People expected marriage to be "sexually satisfying," and if it was not, they often looked for sexual satisfaction elsewhere, and women were not excluded from this practice. Physical qualities as criteria for choosing a marriage partner is something quite new in the eighteenth century. In the previous century, economics had the most control over marital union. Stone offers a more cynical view of Christian marriage as a "double standard" among the upper classes "for most of the early modem period (15001800)." Marriage in the church granted a man “full monopoly rights over the sexual services of his wife.” A wife's virginity was expected to be preserved for her wedding night, while "on the other hand, the man was expected to have gained some sexual experience before marriage, and any infidelities after marriage were treated as venial sins which the sensible wife was advised to overlook." He suggests that adultery and fornication were acceptable in men’s behavior and punishable for women of upper class ranks."* There seems to be overwhelming evidence of these differences in moral expectations for men and women. There are some remarkable differences between marriages of the eighteenth century and Victorian 38 marriages. First, in the Victorian era. marriages were less often arranged then in the earlier century. Women and man began to marry for love. As a result, they began to feel more genuine affection and physical attraction for each other. In the eighteenth century, there is more reference to men insisting on their “conjugal right.” In the nineteenth century, more women seem to be documented for having extra­ marital affairs. In the eighteenth century, women were having more babies to make up for the children they were likely to lose in childbirth or from disea.se. Victorian women were seeking methods of birth control to limit the number of children in their families. Contraception Although condoms were introduced in the seventeenth century, they were not widely used until the early eighteenth century. The primary intention for condom use was to prevent the spread of venereal disease, which made them scarcely available as a contraceptive. A London merchant referred to condoms as “implements of safely which secure the health of my customers.” In 1825 Richard Carlisle suggested that the aristocracy had used the vaginal sponge and condoms in the eighteenth century as forms of birth control, but Slone concludes that "there is no positive evidence that these methods were indeed in common use among upper-class married couples in the eighteenth century." However, in the nineteenth century, one doctor admitted that he wa.s distributing condoms strictly for the purpose of marital contraception, but insisted that this practice wa.s not a condonation of extra-marital sex."’ Annie Besanfs experience inspired her to seek public awareness for the need of pre-marital sexual education of young women, including information about birth control. In 1878, with the help of Charles Bradlaugh, Besanl was successful in campaigning for new legislation concerning the distribution of contraceptive information. "They delivered innumerable lectures, issued a monthly journal, and distributed and sold huge quantities of books and pamphlets.” Although Besant's birth control information was primarily directed toward the �working class, middle-class women were the first to utilize contraceptives. Hamson states that between 1871 and 1900, the average size of bourgeoisie families dropped from “seven or eight to two or three children?'* Conclusion A question one might ask is how do all of these accounts of Bourgeois attitudes toward sexuality merge to form one specific societal distinction? Cleady they do not lend themselves to conformity under one singular standard. As noted earlier, the religious factors do not offer any unanticipated details of practiced repression. Nor do there seem to be any radical universal changes in contemporary Christian doctrine concerning sexual practices in the twentieth century. Sexual activity continues to be restricted to marriage, for the purpose of fulfilling the procreative obligation. Indeed, St. Jerome still has influence over the beliefs of some Christians today in that "All ardent love for one's own wife is adultery." The Catholic Church ha.s not been pressured by the modern practices of the majority of . its lay community: Contraception has not officially been an accepted practice, masturbation is still a venial sin, fornication and infidelity are mortal sins, and the Immaculate Conception is still held as legitimate even though papal infallibility is not. The information presented from a medical point of view is somewhat astonishing in that it provides some insight into the ignorance of the biological basis for sexual activity in the eighteenth century and most of the nineteenth century. Medical practice embodied more of a primitive religious ideology rather than scientific reasoning. Although many reputable physicians did exist, a surprising number of published "experts" were self pronounced doctors who proclaimed their wisdom concerning sexual matters under the umbrella of their particular theological associations. Many theories such as physical maladies resulting from either excessive or insufficient sexual activity could not have been the products of careful scientific observation. A possible explanation for some irresponsible theorizing could be the increased tension and animosity between theology and science during this period. Where religion and medicine fail to contradict the Victorian myth, literature, art, and the private practices of the bourgeoisie (within and outside marriage) succeed in breaking down the stereotype. While eroticism is not an unknown art form, common knowledge of the origins of pornography is probably not widely held today. Another astonishing reality is the lenient censorship placed on newspapers: advertisements for brothels, male prostitutes, abortion pills, aphrodisiacs, and cures and preventative concoctions for venereal disease; lewd sexual insults directed toward politicians; the media race to be the first to publish the details of court testimony on cases of rape, incest and adultery. The newspapers of two hundred years ago were very liberal in printing what might be considered today as offensive material. The ease with which Mabel Loomis and David Todd reported their erotic encounters with each other and their lovers was certainly not representative of Victorian virtue. Also unexpected was Mabel's ability to hold her standing among the bourgeois community after Austin Dickinson's death. Her intense mourning for him betrayed their relationship to her circle of acquaintances. Of equal interest was the preference of Stone's Bourgeois Gentlemen of receiving sexual gratification from several different mistresse.s and prostitutes. Given the risks taken by Byrd and Boswell against sexually transmitted disease, it would seem more logical that they would choose to practice their infidelities with a tighter circle of women within their own class. It is evident that cultural views of sexuality in the past share unexpected similarities as well as unexpected differences with contemporary western society. Apparently, it would be incorrect to assume what those differences and similarities might be without examining the evidence. It would be equally incorrect to assume that the whole of eighteenth­ century and Victorian society fell under one specific school of thought regarding norms for sexual behavior. 39. �Endnotes 2. Ray Poner "Mixed Feelings’ The Enlightenment and Sexuality in Eighteenth-Century Britain." Sexuality iit Eighteenth- Century Britain, ed. Paul Gabriel-Bouce (New Jersey: Barnes and Noble Books. 1982) 8. 3. Lawrence Stone. The Fainilv. Sex and Marriage in Englund. I5(X)-18OO (New Yori: and London: Harper and Row, 1977) 600. 4. Poner, "Enlightenment and Sexuality.' page 8. 5. Peter Gay, The Bourgeois Experience. Victaria Freud: Educatitni of the Sen.xex, vol. I (New York: Oxford University. 1984) 358-59. 7. John Valdimir Price. "Patterns of Sexual Behaviour in Some Eighteenth Century Novels,' Gabriel-Bouce, page 164. 9. Peter Gay. Education of the Sen.xe.x. page 380. 12. Fraser Harrison, The Dark Angel: As/tecis ofViciiorian Sexuality (New York:Universe Books. 1977) Pages 136-37, 144-45. 15. Peter Gay. The Bourgeois Experience, Victoria Io Freud.: The Tender Passion, vol 2 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986) page 49. 16. Stone. Family, Sex, and Marriage, pages 499-500. 17. Gay. The Tender Passion, page 50. 20. Porter. "Enlightenment and Sexuality," page 8. 21. Gay, Passion, page 51. 22. Ibid., page 53. 23. Ibid., page 62. 24. Ibid., page 258. 26. Porter, "Enlightenment and Sexuality," page 20. 28. Stone. Family. Sex and Marriage, pages 514-15. 29. Gay. Senses, pages 298-99. 33. Ibid, page 494. 34. Gay, Senses, page 152. 35. Ibid., page 146. 36. Ibid., pages 150-51. 37. Ibid., page 146. 38. Stone. Family, Sex. and Marriage, page 495. 46. Stone, Familv, Sex. and Marriage . page 501, 47. Ibid., pages 422-23. 47. Harrison, The Dark Angel, page 67. Bibliography < Anderson, Bonnie S. and Judith P. Zinsser. A History of their Own: Women in Europe from Prehistory to the Pre.senl. Vol 2. New York: Harper and Row, 1988. Boswell, James. BoswelT.s London Journal: 1762-1763. Frederick A, Pottie, ed. New York, Toronto. London: McGraw-Hill, 1950. Boswell. James. Bitswell on the Grand Tour: Germany and Switzerland. /764.Frederick A. Pottle, ed. New York, Toronto, London: McGraw-Hill. 1928. Boxer. Marilyn J. And Jean H. (Juataerl. Connecting Spheres: Women in the Western World. 1500 to the Present. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987, Gabriel-Bouce, Paul. Sexuality in Eighteenth Century Britain. New Jersey:Bames and Noble Books, 1982. Gay, Peter. The Bourgeoi.s Experience. Victoria to Freud: Education of the Senses. Vol. I. New York: Oxford University Press, 1984. Gay, Peter. The Bourgeois Experience. Victoria to Freud: The Tender Passion.VoX. 2- New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. Gillis. John R. For Better. For Worse: British Marriages. 1600 to the Present.fievj York: Oxford University Press, 1985. Harrison, Fraser. The Dark Angel: Aspects of Victorian Sexuality. New York: Universe Books. 1977. Lerner, Gerda, Women and History: The Creation of Feminist Consciousness.Vo\. 2. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. MacFarlane, Alan. Marriage and Love in England. 1300-1840. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. Stone, Lawrence. The Family, Sex, and Marriage in England 1500-1800.. New York and London: Harper and Row, 1977. 40 �The Culture of the Student as Reflected in Student Publications By Shawn Houck Course: Educational Psychology Instructor: Dr. Ruth Doyle Assignment; The class project is applied research based on one of the seven designs taught in educational psychology. The following is a descriptive research design. Abstract The culture of (he sluJenl ix in conslani flux. Nowhere is this nxire visible than in student publicalions. which are produced by and for the student body. It is intportani for pntspeciive insirxtctors to understand the ever-changing aspects of student culture in order to bcconK clfective teachers. In the following study, the researcher evaluated thirty years' of a high school student newspaper. The study shows (hat although (he bask focus of the student newspaper does not eonsistantly favtx sports, features or activities, the issues that cotKcni students change with the times. Much can be learned about (he development of student culture al a high school by evaluating (he articles, adveniseinenis and attitudes which appear in back issues of the student newspaper. the.se changing student attitudes. By evaluating student publications from the last thirty years, it is possible to gauge any changes that have occurred in the culture of the student. Many teachers may be unaware of these changes and may believe that students' culture has and will always remain the same. Teachers who lag behind in their understanding of student culture often fail to connect with their students and are ineffective teachers. Introduction The culture of the student is constantly changing. Television, movies, books, media and activities can change the face of student culture almost overnight. These changes can be observed in students' appearance, language and attitudes. The student newspaper, produced by and for the student population, provides a comprehensive reflection of 41 �A. Statement of Problem: The problem of the research was for teachers to understand the differences and changes in student culture from generation to generation as depicted in a scl.ool newspaper. B. Rationale: When instructors understand and appreciate the rapidly changing culture of the student, they may adjust their leaching methods in order to more effectively reach students. Since most cultures build upon their predecessors, it is also important for teachers to have some knowledge of past cultural influences on the present student cultural landscape. C. Null Hypothesis; Student culture, as reflected in student publications, has not changed significantly in the last thirty years in a given high school newspaper. D. Limitations: 1. Instrumentation - The student newspaper may not provide a comprehensive view of student culture. In addition, the newspaper used in this study is from one particular high school in one single city. Therefore, the study will not reflect the universal culture of the student. Also, the stories and advertisement.s contained in student newspapers are often subject to approval and editing by faculty and administration. This may mean that the stories do not represent the most accurate view of everyday life. 2. Selection bias-. Due to time restraints, not every issue of the student newspaper from the last thirty years can be meticulously evaluated. Important data may be overlooked in issue.s that are not carefully evaluated for this study. 3. Value criteria- Observations concerning "proper" and "politically correct" attitudes are ba.sed on the researcher's own interpretations of "proper" and "politically correct." 4. History- Acceptable standards of "right" and "wron^" change from time to lime (and place to place). E. Operational Definitions: Activities- Designation for articles that pertain to 42 clubs, community organizations and non-alhletic activities and events which appear in the newspaper. Criteria- Particular characteristics used to gauge and evaluate the culture of the student. Features- Designation for articles that pertain to people, places, awards, news, current events or issues which appear in the newspaper. The Newspaper-The student newspaper at produced by and for the student population since 1965. Politically correct- A system of values or beliefs which stresses identification of individuals, issues and groups in positive terms. In part the PC movement has been influenced by religious, minority and women's groups who seek positive public identification of their ideals and themselves. Sports- Designation for articles that pertain to sporting events, athletes or scoreboards which appear in the newspaper. Student culture- Diversity created by variety; defined and shaped by the beliefs, guidelines, behavior, appearance and activities of students at a high school between 1965 and 1994. Review of Relevant Literature The literature used in this study includes issues of a high school newspaper from the years 1965-1995. Each issue is evaluated according to specific criteria and provides the necessary information for determining the content of the typical student’s cultural landscape throughout the last thirty years. Considering the nature of the objective, the newspaper is the most relevant literature available for this study. Methods and Procedures A. Subjects: Basically, subjects include all students, faculty, coaches and administration who influenced student culture at the highs school in the past thirty years. Since the study deals with student culture, though, the subjects are primarily the students and student journalists who are represented in hundreds of back issues of the high school newspaper. B. Instrumentation: A basic set of criteria is the instrument used in this �1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 Average: study. The researcher evaluated back issues comparing coverage of sports, activities and features. This instrument also allowed the researcher to note changes in the kinds of sports, activities, features, advertisements and issues which were typically present in each edition. C. Treatment: For each year, from 1965 to 1994, the October or November issue was reviewed. The researcher calculated the average amount of coverage given to three main categories: sports, activities and features. The purpose of this was to see if the focus of the students shifted in any one direction from year to year. The remainder of each year’s papers was evaluated for general content. The researcher kept track of prevalent issues which were recurring and reflected the social atmosphere and cultural content of the time. The researcher also examined each issue for articles and advertisements which would be considered controversial or in poor taste (politically incorrect) if published today. D. Design: Thi.s study shows evidence of trends in social problems and issues in student culture. The project, therefore, falls under two different design designations. The project is primarily historical, because it studies behavior over a long period of time. But the study might also be considered casual comparative, because it evaluates and compares pertinent social problems from the student's point of view over the last thirty years. Perhaps a combination of the two designations -- historical-casual comparative - would best describe this study. 25% 39% 29% 42% 31% 28% ' 20% 35% 46% 38% 34% 50% 49% 25% 48% 38% 30% 25% 56% 38% 46% 42% 25% 31% 35% 23% 36% 31% 35% 29% 30% 42% 33% 38% 44% 53% 5% 16% 43% 34% 28% 25% 55% 21% 35% 52% 57% 39% 38% 29% 30% 48% 41% 60% 50% 39% 58% 38% 46% 31% 29% 25% 31% 28% 27% 60% 38% 19% 32% 22% 26% 20% 31% 27% 18% 18% 5% 24% 25% 28% 27% 28% 5% 22% 25% 11% 27% The average figures would seem to indicate that little change occurred in student culture over the last thirty years. However, fiuctuations are present and do indicate that the focus of students changed sporadically over the years. For instance, in 1979, about half of the newspaper was devoted to sports. But the following year, only one quarter of the paper consisted of sports coverage. Other findings further support a gradual change in student culture from year to year. The content of each issue reflected the attitude.s and beliefs of each particular generation. For instance, in the 6O's. feature stories typically dealt with new teachers, college plans, architectural changes, student council decisions and student awards. In the 7O’s. articles focussing on gender issues, drugs, mainstreaming. Results The researcher found that a definite focus on either sports, features or activities does not occur over the thirty year span. Though the numbers seem to fluctuate, the main focus in the late 7O’s and most of the 8O's is sports, while feature stories play a strong role throughout: Year Sports Features Activitie (coverage devoted to each) 1965 24% 35% 41% 1966 38% 24% 38% 43 �Iplpvisjjpn sthopl spirit were prevalent- In the 8O's gnd poqtinuing into the 9O's, student reporters tackled issues such as crime, apathy, gender equality, sexual altitudes, pregnancy, child abuse, capital punishment, eating disorders, homosexuality, AIDS, outcomes based education, the gulf war and parenting. Also, there was a marked change in the types of advertising and the products advertised over the course of the thirty years which would provide further insight into ever-changing culture of the student. The researcher also discovered many items in past issues of the newspaper, which, if printed today, would be considered "in poor taste." Most of these items were printed in the 6O's and 7O's and dealt with gender issues. For example, the rese;u’cher discovered three fairly lengthy articles profiling women in shop classes. The headline of one article boldly proclaims "SHOP CLASS OFFERED TO GIRLS," The article discusses the items that girls will make in shop classes -- jewelry, ashtrays, rings and bracelets. The topic of another article is a boy who won a cooking award. He responded to the award by saying, "I'm not sure it's an honor, cause anyone with any sense could run a home. Homemakers need no intelligence. My winning has proved that." Still another example of political incorrectness comes in an article from the May 12th, 1977. issue of the newspaper The article discusses the popularity of the television mini-series R(X)ts. According to the article, students were so affected by the show that they chanted "Kunta Kinte, Kunta Kinte" every time a black basketball player touched a ball. Conclusions The researcher rejected the null hypothesis. The culture of the student most definitely changes from year to year, and this is particularly evident in student publications from the last thirty years, Though the focus on sports, features and activities is fairly consistent throughout the years, topics and issues that concern students change each year. These issues grow more and more liberal as lime goes on. It is unlikely that one would find an article about child abuse in this 196O's student newspaper. But in the l990’s. social ills are frequent topics of numerous feature stories. The content of student publications usually reflects 44 the change and progress in the culture of the student. By evaluating student publications from the last thirty years, It is possible to determine very specific information concerning student culture. For Instance, in the l970's, the newspaper documented an increase In drug use among students. Drugs were apparently a very big part of the culture, with a large portion of each issue devoted to articles about drugs. The newspapers also demonstrate that students are becoming increa.singly aware and concerned about the world around them, as students tackle issues such as AIDS, deforestation and capital punishment. In addition, it is interesting to watch the progression of gender Issues over the last thirty years. Students' opinions of the opposite sex are well documented from year to year. As the 199O's gel underway. It is apparent that students are more sensitive to the world around them. Perhaps a better way to put it would be to say that students have become more "politically correct.” Today, one would not find an article about women in shop class or crowds chanting "Kunta Kinte, Kunta Kinte." Even advertising in the student newspaper indicates many things about the student culture of the time. Advertising consistently reflects changes in fashion, interests and behavior of each era's students. In the 196O's, students saw advertisements for businesses such a.s banks, restaurants, clothing stores and portrait studios. Later, these ads continued to appear in the newspaper, but were joined by ads that promoted record stores, bead shops, fast food establishments, car dealerships, comic book stores, crystal shops and tanning salons. One of the most striking differences in advertising reveals how quickly student culture can change. In April of 1981, a large ad for Catholic Social Service,s of Wyoming olTered adoption services and counseling for single parents and unplanned pregnancies. In the l990's, however, the Catholic Social Services advertisements disappeared, and were replaced by Planned Parenthood ads. These ads offered students of the 9O's "Confidential. Affordable Health Care," and "Birth Control Services & Supplies." In the span of ten years, advertising indicates that students' attitudes toward sex and pregnancy changed drastically. Studying advertisements, articles and issues �should demonstrate conclusively that the culture of the student changes frequently. The results of this study imply that the culture of the student will be forever changing. Should this study be reproduced in the future, the researcher recommends that another school newspaper also be evaluated in order to document the difference between students at different high schools. Perhaps one rea.son for the results concerning ratios of sports, feature and activity coverage is the fact that the same teacher has taught journalism al this high school for several years. By including one or more different schools and instructors, the researcher could measure the effect each teacher has on the representation of student culture in student publications. The study could also be improved with a more rigid and definite set of criteria which could be used to evaluate each newspaper. Simply pul, more diversity could make this project an even more comprehensive study of the changing culture of the student. 45 �Age of the Universe By Susan Russell Course: Introduction to Astronomy Instructor: Paul Marquard Assignment: An extra credit report on any topic in astronomy. Hawking, when lecturing at a conference in the Vatican, was told that it was permissible to study the changes in the universe after the Big Bang, but not the Big Bang itself, as that was the moment of Crealion.’ However, with the advent of a slightly more enlightened intellectual community and better instruments, we now spend a great deal of time and effort trying to figure out just how old the universe and our earth really is. Astronomers build on theories that have been formulated by fellow scientists, and then accepted according to what we know about the universe. Whether or not the particular scientist is working on the age of the universe, their theories and work help another to progress on their own theories. Physicists, while not working strictly on cosmological theories, seem to have a great deal of For most of recorded history, speculating about the age of the universe was not encouraged at all. The Church, which was all-powerful, said that the universe and everything in it was 6000+ years old, which the Bible supported. Arguing with this theory was not profitable. A French scholar, Bernard Pallisy, was burned al the stake in 1589 for postulating that the Earth was somewhat older than accepted age.' He refused to accept the idea that ail the changes were caused by a large flood. Copernicus waited until he was on his deathbed before publishing his thoughts that the entire universe might not revolve around the Earth, and that, by extension, mankind was not the center of the universe. An intellectual climate of this order discouraged speculation about generally accepted dogma. Even in this century, Stephen 46 �influence on lhe theories used for space. Advances in chemistry would contribute a great deal to the analysts of spectral lines. Albert Einstein, in forming the general theory of relativity, thought that space was static, and that the universe could not change in size.' He added a "cosmological constant", a kind of antigravity force, more or less a fudge factor to force the universe to conform to the general theory of relativity. He later rejected this idea, calling it one of the largest blunders of his life. Einstein thought that space-time had a tendency to expand, but that lhe attraction of lhe matter tn the universe would balance lhe expansion. He also thought that there would be gravity waves in lhe universe, but they would be so weak as to be undetectable. He felt that a universal antigravity force would make the the universe look younger than it really is. At this point, some scientists are studying the theory again to find out if Einstein was really right the first time around, for reasons that he did not consider al the lime. In 1922, Alexander Friedman, a Russian physicist, predicted that the universe was nonstatic, and that in fact there would be other galaxies. In 1927 the Belgian astronomer Georges Edouard Lemaitre suggested the theory of an original massive unit, and the violent explosion. George Gamow. the RussianAmerican astronomer, is the first person to call this lhe "Big Bang." Some astronomers go on to theorize that the universe, at some point having expanded to maximum size, will then collapse in a "Big Crunch." It was not until 1924 that any astronomer was able to demonstrate that ours was not the only galaxy. Edwin Hubble, who before becoming an astronomer was a teacher, a Rhodes scholar, and a graduate of law school, proved that there were many other galaxies, with space between them, making the universe a great deal larger than first believed. At the lime, the spiral objects seen were thought to be nebulae. Hubble discovered a Cepheid variable in Andromeda, and with the distance he measured, proved that it was another galaxy. He made lhe astonishing discovery that the additional galaxies he saw seemed to be moving away from our solar system. Hubble combined the measurements of the distances and the WbUbH bf lhe galaxies lb flHll thdt ihls gdldxlfc,^ die HbVIHg div ay flbH US: dilti ihdl lhe hlHher away from us they are. the faster away they are moving. However, lhe earth, our solar system, or even our galaxy is not expanding; it is the other galaxies that are moving away from us. Edwin Hubble figured out lhe distances to other galaxies by measuring the stars of a certain type in our galaxy, and arguing that if a distant galaxy had the same type of star, it would also have the same luminosity. This method can be used to calculate lhe distance to that galaxy, if done for several stars in that distant galaxy. Edwin Hubble worked out the distance to nine different galaxies. Now we know that there are some hundred thousand million galaxies that can be seen using modem telescopes. The calculations for this are not simple, as we are by no means sure that the universe ha.s been expanding at the same rale all the time, and it is difficult to know just how far we are from any particular galaxy. Hubble hrst felt that the Big Bang was around two billion years ago. but met with resistance from both biologists and geologists, who felt the Earth was a great deal older than that. The Big Bang theory starts with the idea that at a point in time the universe was a very dense solid mass, and that a huge explosion blew it apart, forming the galaxies that we now have. The theory reaches back to ideas developed between 1927 and 1933. but was not that widely accepted until 1964, when two American radio astronomers detected very taint afterglow radiation. This afterglow is known a.s cosmic background radiation.'* According to Edwin Hubble, the universe is still expanding. The main question for those who accept the Big Bang theory is the rale of the expansion. After all, it we know lhe current size of the universe, and can find lhe rate ot expansion, it would be fairly simple to calculate the age of lhe universe, or at least the time back to the Big Bang. The rate of expansion is referred to as the Hubble Constant. This calculatidn is arrived at by dividing lhe velocity of a galaxy (determined by lhe spectra of light from that galaxy) by its distance from earth.' Teams of researchers have spent lhe last forty years, if not longer, in attempting to assign a value to this number, and to prove lhe age of lhe universe. 11 is also possible that another way may be found to HiedsUh: the dgfe of the universe U-ilhritll Usirig the Hubble CbHsklHl.* Currently there is HO etltUpletely �changed that to a 67, when adjusting for the brightness variation." All of the measurements and estimates have a variance factor that would horrify a statistician. Most other estimates are done using measurements of Cepheids. Dr. Freedman's calculations show the Hubble Constant to be around 80, which is a significant difference. Researchers, including Dr. Freedman herself, point out that the precise location of the MlOO star used for the calculations is unknown. Finding a distance, even if not totally precise, to the Virgo cluster is certainly a milestone in astronomy. The team plans to use other stars over the next three years to pinpoint their findings. The additional calculations may well change the value found by the team for the constant. The other factor for the constant is that the universe seems to contain much less matter than originally thought, though cosmologists are not sure how our universe could have evolved from a low mass Big Bang.'* Even once the various teams agree on a value for the Hubble Constant, and by extension, the age of the universe, the groups all agree that a large percentage-somewhere in the neighborhood of 99%-of the matter that should make up the universe is unaccounted for. Dr. Sandage feels that there was some bias in the selection of the targets for the distance measurements. In 1995, Dr. Sandage and his associates were to use the HST to observe two supernovas to check his work. He certainly isn't conceding that he is wrong about the rate of expansion and the age of the universe. In fact, his current work still points toward an older universe. " There have been eight different methods used that all come up with the older universe, and Dr. Sandage feels that Dr. Freedman is not taking these into account with her findings. The problem is going to be to gel everyone to agree at some point in time on the value for the Hubble Constant, and to have a generally accepted view of the age of the universe, and what has been happening since the Big Bang. As views of a single part of a theory change, views of other interlocking pieces also have to change to make the pieces fit with the newly accepted ideas. Right now there are several camps of researchers who are finding different values for different ages, and theorizing as to how the pieces reliable way of measuring distances to the objects used in determining the constant. A small discrepancy in the distance would end up making a great deal of difference in the answer. Dr. Robert Kirshner and a team at the HarvardSmithsonian Center for Astrophysics in Cambridge, MA. have developed a method of measuring the age of the universe by estimating the light emitted by the supernova 1987A when it exploded. By using the color of the gas, the temperature can be estimated. By measuring the amount of energy received at the earth, the distance to the supernova can be measured. After using this method on a "nearby" supernova, where the distance is otherwise known, the method can then by extension be used to arrive at the distance to further supernovas. When combined with the red shift of the galaxies in which the supernova exploded, Dr. Kirshner arrived at an estimate of the age of the universe of 12 to 16 billion years.’ A great many teams are working to try and discover the rate of expansion. Dr. Allen Sandage of the Carnegie Observatories in Santa Barbara, CA, learned astronomy from Edwin Hubble, and has spent his career trying to find the Hubble Constant. He has consistently come up with a low number, meaning that the universe would be from ten to twenty billion years old. However, in 1994, Dr. Wendy Freedman, using the Hubble Space Telescope, came up with a much lower figure, and came to the conclusion that the universe was eight to twelve billion years old, which makes it younger than some of its stars. Dr. Freedman's team used the galaxy MlOO in Virgo for these findings. She does caution that other measurements to many more galaxies will need to be made before the puzzle of the Hubble Constant can be considered solved, and the measurements to these other distant bodies may well give yet another value. Another group of astronomers, led by Dr. Michael J. Pierce of Indiana, have come up with an age of seven to eleven billion years, using the distance to the Virgo cluster of galaxies. Dr. Robert Kirshner of Harvard has judged the universe to be nine to fourteen billion years old, using the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile to measure the atmospheres of some large exploding supernovas. Dr. Kirshner came up with a value of 55 for the Hubble Constant, but 48 �fit together. However, it's an interesting time, as brilliant minds search around for ways to explain how the pieces might fit into someone clse's theory, should it prove to be correct. The actual age of the universe is going to be very difficult to pinpoint. After all, since none of us was here, it's an educated guess using the resources we have at any given time to make that guess. The guesses and resources build upon what scientists have discovered in prior years, and may hinge upon concepts not yet proved or even thought about. We do not have proof that the universe i.s expanding at a constant rate, or that it has always been the same rate. We do not have any idea how much matter was in the original mass, which would make a difference in the calculations of the movement. There is also the possibility, raised by George Smoot, that there are "wrinkles in time", i.e., in space, that change the fabric of space. Cosmologists feel that the universe cannot be younger than the oldest stars, but some day we may find a reason for older matter-perhaps an earlier "Big Bang." There are dozens of theorists who try to dream up what happened, either using data already available, or trying to predict what new observation,s will show. There are a great many questions still to be answered, or theories to be formulated to fit with new and different data. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration launched a satellite three years ago, called COBE (Cosmic Background Explorer Satellite) to measure the cosmic background radiation. The results being returned from this satellite may change some ideas of the early universe.'The advances of technology will be a huge factor in the mapping of the age and the size of the universe. After the repair work on the Hubble Space Telescope, it has transmitted an incredible amount of information and pictures never before seen back to the earth. We may find even more advanced uses for the telescope. and more detailed ways in which to interpret the data that is being received. When more advanced instruments are built and used, there may be a great many changes in the way we perceive the universe. The universe may be shown to be older, or even a great deal younger than we now think. After all. it's not been all that long ago that it was an accepted theory that the universe was a "steady state", that it did not move al all. The ancients based their theories on what was "perfect" or most elegant, such as the sphere, without taking into account that there are a great many limes that nature is neither perfect nor very elegant. The Hubble Constant may not be the entire answer to the age of the universe. Some of the other questions, such as what happened to the rest of the matter from the Big Bang, since the galaxies do not seem to account for what is thought to be the entire amount, may shed some light on the age ol the universe. Though right now the various groups of astronomers measuring the constant are getting a great deal of publicity, the final answer to the question of the age of the universe may well hinge on other findings. As answers are found and possibly discarded to the various questions, our knowledge of the size, age, and composition of our universe is going to change dramatically. Though the current investigation into the Hubble Constant will expand our knowledge of the universe, it may also raise other questions about the origin, age. and fate of the universe. Though new theories are formulated for the answers to these questions, the theories need to jibe with the other known facts about the universe. If the answer to the age of the universe seems to be around 12 billion years, current astrophysicists could adjust current theory and retain the foundations of their theories. But If the answer turns out to be one of the lower figures, such a.s S billion years, it may force science to give up the Big Bang theory. ” 49 �Footnotes 1. 2. Isaat Asimov. GLIDETO EARTH AND SPACE. (Fawceil, 1991), p.27 Siephen W. Hawking. A BRIEF HISTORY OF TIME. (New York. Bantam, 1988), p.ll6 3. Siephen W. Hawking, p, 40 4. George Siixxil and Keay Davidson. WRINKLES IN TIME, (New York, William Morrow and Company. 1993) p. 9 5. Ron Cowen. Searching for Cosmology's Holy Grail. Science Newt. October 8. 1994 6. John Noble Witford. Big Bang's Defenders Weigh Fudge Factor. A Blunder of Einstein's, as Fix for New Crisis The New Tart Timex, November I. 1994 7. Roben Kirshner. The Earth's Elements (Supernova I987A and the Age of the Universe). Scienlific American. October, 1994 8. 9. Wilford, John Noble. Astronomers Debate Conflicting Answers for the Age of the Universe. The New Yitris Timex, December 27. 1994 Michael D. Lemonick, Oops...Wrong Answer, Time. November 7, 1994 p. 69 10. Kathy Sawyer, Universal Truths, Kix/iifix/ofi Piixi Naiiimal Weekly Eiliiioa. <Wa.shington, DC) IL 12. Kathy Sawyer, Universal Truths. W'o.vJitti.t'Zon Piixi Naiiimal Weekly Edition. (Washington, DC) September 11-17. 1995 p. 7 Antonio Regalado, COBE seeks Universe’s First Blush, Scr'erne, (May 19, 1995) pg. 975 1.3. Michael D. Lemonick. Oops..Wrong Answer, Time, November 7, 1994 p. 69 Bibliography Books Asimov, Isaac Guide to Earth and Space. New York Fawcett Crest, 1991 Goldsmith. Donald The Axinmtmerx. New York, St. Marlin's Press, 1991 Hawking. Stephen W. A Brief History of Time; From the Big Bang lo Blwn Holes New York, Bantam Books. 1988 Mitore, Patrick Fireside Astronomy. New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1992 Moore, Patrick Teach Yourself Astronomy. Chicago, NTC Publishing Group. 1995 Smooi. George and Davidson, Keay Wrinkles in Time, New York, William Morrow & Company. 1993 Periodicals Begley. Sharon; The Cosmic Dating Game, Newsweek, (November 7. 1994) Cowen. Ron: Searching for Cosmology's Holy Grail, Science News. (October 8. 1994) pg. 232 Cowen, Ron: The Little Bang. Science News. (June 24, 1995), pg. 392 Editorial Page: Editorial Page; Universal Care. The New Yorker, {November 14. 1994), pg. 45 Editorial Page;Age-Old Quesiions, Maclean's (November 7, 1994) pg. 41 Kirshner. Robert P.: The Earth's Elements. Scienlific American (October 1994), pg 59-65 Lemonick. Michael D: Oops...Wrong Answer, Time, (November 7, 1994), pg. 69 Lemonick, Michael D.: Cosmic Close-Ups, Time. (November 2(1. 1995) pg. 90-99 Regalado. Antonio: COBE Seeks Universes First Blush, Science. (May 19. 1995) pg. 975-6 Sawyer, Kathy: Universal Truths, The Washington Post National Weekly Edition. (September 11-17, 1995) pages 6-7 Wilford, John Noble: Astronomers Debate Conflicting Answers for the Age of the Universe, The New York Times, (December 24, 1994) Wilford. John Nitble: Big Bang's Defenders Weigh Fudge Factor, a Blunder of Einstein's, a.s Fix For New Crisis. The New York Times, (November I. 1994) Wilford, John Noble: Finding on Universe's Age Poses New Cosmic Puzzle. The New York Times, (October 27, 1994) Wilford, John Noble: New Puzzle Arises on Universe's Age, The New York Times. (October 4, 1994) Wilford, John Noble: New Data: Stars Still Seem Too Old, The New York Times. (September 12, 1995) Wilford, John Noble; New Measurements on Age of Universe. The New York Times, (January 10, 1995) 50 �Hypotheses on Infanticidal Behavior in Animals By Jessica Clifford Course: Animal Behavior Instructor: Dr. Will Robinson Assignment: Students were assigned a term paper on any aspect of animal behavior. They were encouraged to select an interesting behavior and discuss whether it was clearly adaptive or advantageous to the animal, and discuss its possible evolution. (This is a university course, but the student is a Casper College student.) example of scientific controversy. While there seems to be little doubt concerning infanticidal behavior's adaptive value, the issues surrounding its ultimate and proximate causes continue to arouse a multitude of varying explanations. Sexual Selection Hypothesis The most popular and best documented proposal attempting to explain infanticide is known as the Sexual Selection hypothesis. This hypothesis supposes .that adult males engage in infanticide to gain increased access to breeding opportunities. Introduction For centuries, scientists have explored new ideas, postulated new predictions, and tested new hypotheses. Scientists are infamous for their habitual distrust of each others interpretations. It is for this reason that with each forthcoming scientific theory, progress evolves from resulting investigations and explanations. Infanticide, a behavior appalling by most human standards, involves the direct and intentional termination of an infant belonging to the same species as the perpetrator. It is one such 51 �Stemming from the sexual selection hypothesis are several expected observations. Among these is the prediction that not only should the infanticidal male not kill his own offspring or those suspected of being so, but he should also expect to gain sexual access to the mother sooner than if he had left the infant alive. These predictions have been systematically put to the test in a variety of studies. Evidence From Lions Evidence in support of the sexual selection hypothesis has come from, among others, the 19661973 observations of the African lion (Panthera leo), in the Serengeti and Ngorangora Crater. Tanzania (Packer and Pusey 1984). African lions are carnivores, characteristically found living and hunting in prides. Female lions and their cubs generally remain in a stable area of residence, while males migrate from one pride to the next in search of females receptive to mating. When a new coalition of males takes over a pride, however, there are often serious consequences; infanticide occurs nearly every time. A female lion that has given birth normally remains anestrus until her cubs are approximately one and a half years old, unless, however, her cubs are killed. If the female's cubs are killed by an infanticidal male, she will resume mating activity within just a few days or weeks after the loss of her cubs (Packer and Pusey 1984). Since lions are not seasonal breeders, environmental cues are not involved in determining the pattern of the female's estrous cycle. Consequently, much of the female lion's reproductive cycle is determinate on the developmental stage of her current offspring. Therefore, a likely explanation for infanticide during male coalition takeovers may be that the male is attempting to speed up the female's return to mating receptivity. According to the study, if males do not speed up the mating process of females in the new pride, they may not obtain the chance to sire any offspring, given that the male lion's average tenure is only two years. There is further support for this proposal. First, the average postpartum amenorrhea (absence of menstruation) for females whose cubs survive their infancy has been shown to span approximately 530 days, with the female conceiving once again on the average of one month later. Females that lose their cubs through infanticide, however, conceive on the average of 134 days after their loss. This gives the infanticidal males the opportunity to sire cubs approximately eight months sooner than if they had not committed the infanticide. Females, coincidentally, will often end up mating with infanticidal males after the death of their cubs because they are usually the only males remaining in the tribe after the takeover (Packer and Pusey 1984). There exists other convincing evidence to support the sexual selection hypothesis of infanticide, it is possible that not only do male lions kill infants of their own species to enhance their chances of finding a receptive mate, but also to monopolize the gene pool. For instance, the only observed incident where a small cub survived a takeover by a male coalition was when the cub happened to be a sibling of all three invading males. If the invading coalition had no relation to the female or her cubs, infanticide occurred. Therefore by removing the cubs of the previous males, incoming male lions enhanced the survival of their own cubs and genes (Packer and Pusey 1984). Evidence from Red E>eer Infanticide as a successful reproductive strategy, according to the sexual selection hypothesis, depends greatly on the targeted female's pattern of reproductive receptivity. Whether or not a male's infanticidal efforts are worthwhile may depend greatly on whether his species Is a seasonal or unseasonal breeder. Although infanticide has been traditionally viewed by researchers as a male reproductive strategy that does not apply to seasonal breeders, it is possible that occasionally females of seasonal breeders that have lost their litter in one season may have an increased level of fertility during the subsequent season, as well as larger and healthier litters (Bartos 1994). Based on this information, a study was performed on a seasonally breeding species, the red deer (Cervus 52 �elaphus) in the Zehusice Deer Park. Czech Republic. According to the sexual selection hypothesis, if infanticide in red deer existed, not only should the calf mortality be highest in seasons following a change in alpha position within the group of stags, but the reproduction of hinds (female deer) should also increase in seasons following a change in stag hierarchy (Bartos 1994). To test these predictions, the red deer were divided into two groups, one consisting of an alpha stag who was present at the time of calving and during the end of the previous rutting season, and the other consisting of an alpha stag who was present at the time of calving, but not during the end of the previous rutting season. During the study. 265 calve.s were bom. 56 of which died due to various reasons. Three of the deaths resulted from infanticide due to injuries inflicted by antlers. In each case the only antlered male present wa.s the alpha stag not present during the previous rutting season. In concordance with these findings, the reproductive receptivity of hinds in the following season tended to be higher in the group where infanticidal stags were reported (Bartos 1994). Social Bonding Hypothesis In some species, infanticidal aggression appears to be a means for the male to establish rapid social bond.s with the mothers of the dead infants, resulting in the male's rapid integration into the group (Leland et al. 1984). This explanation for infanticidal behavior is known as the Social Bonding hypothesis. Specific evidence supporting it comes from a study performed on red coIobus monkeys, (CoIobus badius tephrosceles) in the Kanyawara Forest, Uganda. The observed group consisted of, prior to the infanticides. 33 individuals: 3 adult males, 1 subadult male, and 14 adult females and their offspring. The infanticidal individual wa.s the subadult male. "Whitey." Whitey had not been seen copulating before his infanticidal behavior. Infanticide occurred during the period of his rapid physical and sexual maturation (Leland et al. 1984). Whitey's infanticidal behavior not only brought him extremely rapid integration into the group as a whole, but particularly into the reproductive sector. Whitey gained reproductive acceptance with the mothers of the infants that he killed, as well as with other reproductively receptive females. Whitey's infanticidal behavior earned him a 50 percent increase in his proportion of total group copulations. Within the subsequent 6-month period, he copulated with 9 out of 10 receptive females, more than any other male in the group. Females also frequently initiated the copulation with Whitey, approximately 60 percent more often than with the other males in the group. These findings arouse a number of nagging questions. Why would an adult female belonging to a highly intelligent and emotional species allow her infant to me mercilessly murdered, and why would she feel compelled to follow her infant's death by mating with its killer? These profound questions have yet to bg answered, but they certainly reinforce the mysterious aspects of infanticide. They also remind scientists that there remains much progress to be made in determining its causes and consequences. Despite the questions raised by the red coIobus females’ attraction to Whitey, the data are undeniable. It is the consensus among scientists that social bonding plays a subordinate role to reproductive advantage in species where it has been witnessed (Leland et al. 1984). Competition For Resources Hypothesis The Competition for Resources hypothesis has also raised considerable interest among students of infanticide. This hypothesis predicts that "the death of an infant will, on average, result in increased access to resources for the killer and his descendants (Leland et al. 1984)." As straightforward as this prediction may initially seem, it is accompanied by several stipulations that make its documentation quite difficult. First, it must be determined that a resource is actually limited. Secondly, it must be shown that infanticide increases the infanticidal individual's access to the resource (Hausfater and Hrdy 1984). Evidence From House Sparrows Competition for resources may explain infanticide by adult female.s in the house sparrow (Passer domesticus). According to JelT Hecht (1990). female house sparrows may kill other adult females' nestlings 53 �bees, undersized and malnourished males are a nutritional and social burden on the colony (Fisher 1990). Although how queen bees recognize the sex of larvae is unknown, they clearly are making decisions on larval infanticide based on gender. Parental Manipulation of Offspring to Increase Their Own Fitness Another possible explanation for infanticidal behavior is that it is a consequence of parents’ manipulation of their offspring to increa.se their own fitness. Evidence for this proposal comes from the observation of female lions and grizzly bears, which have a reputation for abandoning small litters of seemingly healthy cubs and investing in only larger litters (Packey and Pusey 1984). Given that the average litter size for lions and bears is two to three cubs, it might be an unnecessary exhaustion of both the mother's energy and time to invest in a single cub when she could instead prove more efficient and reproductively successful with several. Evidence From Brown Hyenas Brown hyenas (Hyena brunnea) also illustrate how mothers in particular use infanticide to further their own fitness. Hyenas generally live in clans with more than one breeding female, but births within a given group are conventionally spaced so that only one female gives birth to cubs at any given time. If, by extraordinary coincidence, two females in the same group happen to give birth at approximately the same time, the dominant of the two females will occasionally commit infanticide by badgering the other until she ceases caring for her own young. In cases where this behavior was observed, the subordinate female ended up helping the infanticidal female raise her cubs. This behavioral pattern may represent an adaptive strategy by the infanticidal female (Packer and Pusey 1984). She not only maintains her solitary breeding status among the pack, but also deceives the subordinate female into devoting her own energies and resources into caring for her young. Cannibalism Often seen as a secondary repercussion of sexually selected infanticide by adult males is cannibalism, in because they are in fierce competition for parental help in rearing their young. Evidently, the females that kill the nestlings of other females sparrows are often the "second wives" of bigamous males. Male house sparrows prefer to help in the rearing of their primary mate's young. However, when a secondary female kills his primary mate’s nestlings, the male then provides parental care for her infants. Evidence From Bumble Bees Another study supporting this hypothesis deals with infanticide in the form of larval ejection form the brood of bumble bees (Bombus terresiris). Several possible explanations for this behavior have been postulated. Larval ejection is most likely associated with the production of both male and queen bees, and possibly serves in preventing the production of undersized sexuals and individuals (males) that consume food but do not gather it. This may be especially true in colonies limited in food resources and parental care (Fisher 1990). In an effort to test the effect of larval sex on the tendency of queen bees to commit infanticide, the response of bumble bee queens to foreign larvae was tested. Male larvae were placed in 7 recipient nests and female larvae into 16 recipient nests. In 6 out of the 7 nests that received male larvae, the resident queens responded by ejecting the male larvae, and destroying the egg cells along with their contents which were present at the time of larval transfer. The queens, however, did not eject larvae, nor destroy egg cells with near this frequency in the nests that received female (worker) larvae (Fisher 1990). Fisher concluded from this evidence that queen bees do indeed respond specifically to the presence of male larvae, often resolving the situation through infanticide. Infanticide by queen bumble bees involves several potentially adaptive strategies. By destroying male larvae, she is not only increasing food availability and adult size attained by the survivors, but also preventing a wasted long term investment in the developing males, who due to restricted resources would be destined to lose in later competition for access to mating queens. Unlike undersized worker 54 �which case the infanticidal individual both kills and consumes the infant. But in Ihirteen-lined ground squirrels, males do not kill to bring females into estrus as the sexual selection hypothesis predicts. Rather, they take advantage of the mothers' absence to gain a high-protein meal (Vestal 1991). Cannibalistic infanticide has also been observed in numerous species of forest primates and is likewise presumed to serve a.s a high-protein food source during times of increased breeding activity (Leland et al. 1984). Population Regulation Hypothesis It has been suggested that infanticide in many species of non-human primates and rodents may be an attempt to control population density. The Population Regulation hypothesis of infanticide is controversial. The controversy surrounding this theory stems from its discarding of the relatively concrete sexual selection hypothesis, and its proposal that infanticide plays an important role in population dynamics. However, there have been several isolated incidents where infanticide seems to have played a population-limiting role. For instance, Svare and Mann (cited by Brooks 1984) have implicated infanticide in the population control of rodents, and Koshkina and Korotkov (Brooks 1984) concluded that young olTspring were killed by adults in a species of red vole (Clelhrinomy,s ratilus) as a means of population management. Although the population regulation hypothesis may have some valid points, it is limited by several conditions. First, it fails to explain the frequent occurrence of infanticide in populations of extremely low density, e.g. the blue monkey (Cercopitherus milis stuhlmanni). Secondly, it relies heavily on the concept of group selection which is not supported by convincing data (Leland et al. 1984). Social Pathology Hypothesis All the above hypotheses have had one central idea in common: the conceptualization of infanticide as a mechanism that increa.ses the overall fitness of an individual, or, as in the case of the population density theory, the fitness of the species a.s a whole. The Social Pathology hypothesis, however, suggests infanticide is an individually maladaptive behavior. Infanticide, according to this explanation, decreases the fitness of the infanticidal individual. Evidence for this theory comes form the infanticidal behavior exhibited by males of common langur monkeys (Presbytis enntellus). Mainly due to the research and findings of Sarah Hardy, male infanticidal behavior in langurs has traditionally been perceived as a result of sexual selection. Evidence supporting sexual selection as the cause includes the following observations: infant loss by female langurs causes an early return to estrus; male langurs avoid killing their own offspring or close relatives (Boggess 1984). Infanticide in langurs has also been observed to occur just after male-band attacks. It has also been hypothesized, however, that male langurs kill infants immediately following entrance into a new band because they are reacting with generalized aggression to a seemingly intense contlict situation (Boggess 1984). This would imply that the male langurs are not really killing the infants purposefully, but unintentionally as a casualty of their generalized aggression. The hypothesis that infanticide occurs as a side effect of male generalized aggression is a plausible one. However, faced with Hrdy's relatively concrete documentation supporting sexual selection, it remains rather weak. If it were true, infants should be killed only during limes of male coalition takeovers, when tension among adult males is at its peak. Evidence suggests, however, that this conclusion remains suspect. For instance, sludie.s on langurs in Dharwar have reported the death of several infants after stabilization of adult male membership within the group. This stabilization prior to the infanticide negates the possibility of infant death as a result of generalized aggression (Boggess 1984). Conclusion Obviously, there is controversy over the causes of infanticide. While the African lions and Red deer lend strong support for the sexual selection hypothesis, some species of forest primates like he red coIobus monkey provide evidence for social bonding as an incentive for infanticide. The competition for resources and cannibalism 55 �Iiyppthejips, wel} the suggesiipn inffUlhJ-IrfP pccpf§ 19 p«pHla|iop ^‘^psify wppin q specjes. all provide alternate explanations for infanticidal behavior. In past years it has been thought, mainly due to lack of documentation, that infanticide occurred in only a few, isolated species. In many cases, reasons for its occurrence were unknown. Now, infanticidal behavior is thought of less and less as an aberrant. hfh^iYiPF’ ‘iPFl wiifi frpflHPPpy pHrppsef'Hl. (pt|iyidHi||ly adaptive s|fi|fpgy. Although it seems as though infanticide occurs for different reasons in different species, from insects to primates, it can be logically concluded that while these animals have innumerable characteristics and evolutionary strategies that are different, many find common ground with each other through the adaptive value of infanticide. Works Cited Bartos. L. and J. Madlafousek. 1994. tnfanlicide in a seasonal breeder ihe case for lhe red deer. Animal Behaviour 47: 217- 219. Boggess. J. 1984. Infant killing and male reproductive strategies in langurs {Presbyiis eniellus). tn Infanticide: cimparative and evaliirianary perspectives. G. Hausfater and S.B. Hrdy (eds.). Aldine Publishing Company, Hawthorne, N.Y.. p. 283310. Brooks, R.J. 1984. Causes and consequences of infanticide in populations of rodents, in Infanticide: campfirative and evolutumary perspectives. G. Hausfater and S.B. Hrdy (eds.). Aldine Publishing Company, Hawthorne, N.Y., p. 331- 348. Fisher, R.M. 1990. Sex discrimination and infanticide by queens of lhe bumble bee Bambus lermsiris. Animal Behaviour 39: 801-802. Hecht, J. 1984. Killer sparrows. Ne Scientist 126:31. Hausfater. G. and S.B. Hrdy. 1984. Infanticide: comparative and evolutionary perspectives. Aldine Publishing Company. Hawthorne. N.Y.p. 598. Leland, L. and T.T. Struhsaker and T.M. Butynski. 1984. Infanticide by adult males in three primate species of the Kibale Forest, Uganda: a test of hypotheses. In Infanticide: comparative and evoliitionaiy perspectives. G. Hausfater and S.B. Hrdy (eds.). Aldine Publishing Coi.ipany, Hawthorne, N.Y., P. 151-172. Packer, C. and A.E. Pusey. 1984. Infanticide in carnivores. In Infanticide: comparative and evolutionary perspectives. G. Hausfater and S. B. Hrdy (eds.). Aldine Publishing Company, Hawthorne, N.Y, p. 31 -42. Vestal. B.M. 1991. Infanticide and cannibalism by male ihirteen-lined ground squirrels. Animal Behaviour4l: 1103-1104. 56 �c Motion for Third Party Complaint By Jo Hadley Course: Civil Procedure Instructor: Mary Kubichek Assignment: The assignment required drafting a motion to join an additional party to an already existing lawsuit. An integral part of the assignment required the inclusion of supporting documents to the motion. MIRANDA DOMINGUEZ Plaintiff, V. SCOTTS FOOD STORES, INC Defendant State of Wyoming County of Natrona Seventh Judicial District Court Civil Action No. 71-4683 57 �State of Wyoming County of Natrona Seventh Judicial District Court MOTION i OR THIRD PARTY COMPLAINT Pursuant to Rule 19 of the Wyoming Rules of Civil Procedure, Scott's Food Stores, Inc. by and through its attorney, Robert L. Livingston, moves the court to: 1. Authorize Defendant to file a Third Party Complaint in this action on the ground it is necessary for Defendant to state a cause of action against Ralph Johnson and to join him as Third Party Defendant herein to ensure complete relief will be accorded among those already parties to this action. 2. This motion is based on the pleadings and records filed to date with the court together with the attached affidavit in support of the motion filed herewith. Civil Action No. 71-4683 MIRANDA DOMINGUEZ Plaintiff, V. SCOTT S FOOD STORES. INC., Defendant AFFIDAVIT OF TOM BALL IN SUPPORT OF MOTION FOR THIRD PARTY COMPLAINT I, Tom Ball, being first duly sworn, depose and say: 1. 1 am the registered agent and general manager for Scott's Food Stores, Inc., the defendant in this action, and am acquainted with the facts in this case, and have personal knowledge of the matter set forth in this affidavit. 2. 1 make this affidavit in support of the Motion for Third Party Complaint. 3. I held the position of registered agent general manager at all times mentioned in the complaint filed in this action. 4. On or about May 7, 1995, Ralph Johnson was employed as store manager for Scott’s Food Stores, Inc. at its Store No. 14, located at 1100 Quitman, Casper, Wyoming. 5. Mr. Johnson, in his capacity as store manager, has the duty to provide a safe and conducive environment to the business invitees of Scott’s Food Store No. 14. 6. Mr. Johnson had been informed by the assistant store manager. Erath Pittston, of the condition of the grocery carts at the Scott Food Store No. 14 on April 9, 1995, April 24, 1995 and May 5, 1995. Mr. Johnson had been notified in writing by store work-order #00712, on April 24, 1995 that the carts were in a bad state of repair and difficult to remove from the cart storage rack. 7. Mr. Johnson did not remove grocery carts DATED this___ day of October, 1995. Scott's Food Stores, Inc. Robert L. Livingston Attorney for Defendant First City National Bank Bldg. Casper, WY 82676 (307) 555-7878 (307) 555-8787 fax CERTIFICATE OF SERVICE I hereby certify that on the__ day of October, 1995, a true and correct copy of the above and foregoing Motion for Third-Party Complaint has been forwarded by U.S. Postal Service, postage prepaid and addressed to: Mr. Steven T. Elder Attorney at Law Suite 412 First Savings Building Casper, WY 82601 Robert L. Livingston 58 �Scott's Food Stores, Inc. from customer service in response to the assistant manager's notification of condition. 8. Mr. Johnson had the authority and the responsibility to provide for the care and maintenance of grocery carts at Scott’s Food Store No. 14. Mr. Johnson failed to remove grocery carts in a poor state of repair from customer service, and he failed to make necessary repairs to the cart storage rack to facilitate cart removal by customers. 9. Mr. Johnson breached the standard duty of care to business invitees of Scott's Food Stores by not storing grocery carts in a manner which would allow them to be pulled away from the cart rack without difficulty in violation of Scott’s Food Stores, Inc. corporate policies. 10. Mr. Johnson failed to follow corporate policy governing cart storage and repair protocols. 11. On May 9, 1995 Mr. Johnson's employment with Scott’s Food Stores, Inc. was terminated for cause based on the above referenced factors. Robert L. Livingston Attorney for DeTendant First City National Bank Bldg. Casper. WY 82676 (307) 555-7878 (307) 555-8787 fax CERTIFICATE OF SERVICE I hereby certify that on the__ day of October. 1995. a true and correct copy of the above and foregoing Motion for Third-Party Complaint has been forwarded by U.S. Postal Service, postage prepaid and addressed to: Mr. Steven T. Elder Attorney at Law Suite 412 First Savings Building Casper, WY 82601 Robert L. Livingston FURTHER, your Affiant sayeth naught. Dominguez v. Scott's Foods Affidavit Tom Ball STATE OF WYOMING ) )ss. COUNTY OF NATRONA ) SUBSCRIBED in my presence and sworn to before me by Tom Ball this __ day of October, 1995. Witness my hand and official seal. Notary Public My commission Expires: DATED this_ day of October, 1995. 59 �Nursing Care: Opportunities and Trends By Sara Lilley Course: Issues in Nursing Practice Instructor: Judith Turner Assignment: Write a short research paper on a topic covered in this course. Include bibliography or reference list to support the data. The nursing profession is a dynamic career, constantly growing and changing. Health care reform, emphasis on preventive medicine and technological advances contribute to its growth and change. The nursing profession is being reinvented and challenged while continuing to incorporate the traditional roles of caregiver, teacher and advocate. This change is rellected in the numerou.s opportunities available for nurses now and in the future. This paper will describe prospects of various nursing positions and qualifications needed for these positions. Future trends and non-traditional opportunitie.s will also be addressed. In discussing employment opportunities in "Nursing Today: Transitions and Trends," Zerwekh and Claborn state. "The largest employers are hospitals and acute care facilities" (339). Included in this group are nurse anesthetists, who administer "more than 1/2 of all anesthesia in the U.S." (Balkie 2). This specialty is the oldest nursing specialty and was begun in the 1800s. It requires two to three years of study in addition Io a BSN. current RN license and one year's experience in acute care nursing and a national certification examination. CRNAs may work autonomously or be associated with a physician anesthesiologist or health care facility in the operating 60 �room or outpatient surgery clinic (2). Other hospital positions include staff nurse, charge nurse, infection control nurse, director or vice president of nursing and house supervisor. The staff nurse, who may need a BSN, has extensive technical skills and directs and plans patient care (Zerwekh and Clabom 341). A charge nurse position may also require a BSN. The infection control nurse establishes policies and identifies trends and sources for infection control throughout the institution. The director of nursing or vice president of nursing has more responsibility in the overall management of the facility. Budget planning, goal­ setting, hiring and firing of management personnel and input on the philosophical mission of the institution come under the director of nursing's jurisdiction. A Master's degree or even a Doctoral degree is the usual qualification, along with previous management experience (342). Financial and budget matters in some cases are assigned to a Director of Nursing Finance (DNF). "This position... plans, directs and organizes the capital and operating budgets for the nursing division" (Jacoby, et al 49). In addition, the DNF may handle all of the department's financial matters, such as preparing cost analyzes, coordinating special projects, giving educational and inservice programs, and budgeting capital equipment expenditures (51). A Master's degree and a background in finance, nursing or accounting is required in most facilities. An article in Nursing AHminictmrinn^Qiia^rly (Hartsen et al 23) describes the role of unit nurse” manager in an acute care medical center. Responsibilities include structuring systems for patient care to increase productivity and reduce costs, dealing with complex technology and a diverse work force. Leadership style involves "extroversion, initiative, ability to act, emotional balance, self­ confidence" (24) and sociability. Home health care services are an emerging form of treatment delivery requiring an increasingly larger number of nursing professionals. Nurses provide care in an alternative setting which is usually preferred to institutionalization for the chronically 61 debilitated clients or those recovering from acute illness. Home health nurses can help a family plan for quality of life for the patient and adjust as the client's care needs change. "Nurses in home care...have a focus on the family as well as the individual..." (Keating 89). A holistic approach to the assessment of the primary caregiver and the client insures the quality of life. Close relationships are formed between the home health care nurse and the family which usually create a "more independent, creative and satisfying model of nursing" (Jacoby 24). Entry level requirement to a home health position is usually at least one year or more experience in an acute care setting for the RN. The current trend of discharging patients from acute care hospitals quicker and sicker has created a need for hospital-based skilled nursing facilities (SNF) for care. In this setting, nurses are an integral part of a multidisciplinary team that assists patient and family to provide rehabilitation and a "level of independence that would otherwise be unlikely" (Michota 64). Nurses at a SNF plan goals, coordinate nursing and other disciplines for the patient and "practice the kind of nursing they were taught" (65). Nursing services also include assessment and observation, development management and evaluation of a care plan, as well as rehabilitative nursing procedures. No educational or previous experience requirements were listed for this type of position. ases a A clinical nurse soecialis caseload of clients with complex needs" in the Integrated Health Care Delivery System (Jacoby 37). The CNS functions as case manager, educator, consultant and researcher. The position also includes coordinating agency services and working to improve patient and family outcomes in conjunction with the health care team. As a case manager, the CNS reviews the care the client receives, assesses alternatives and helps integrate the patient back into the community setting. A CNS title requires a Master's degree in nursing and a certification exam in her/his specialty. Changing trends in health care lead to various innovative nursing positions. Emergency room nurses �who are caught in staff restructuring are encouraged to seek employment in telephone triage systems. In telephone triage, nurses provide symptom management and health information, as well as reassurance to the patients. HMOs promote this type of health care as it reduces costs by keeping patients out of the emergency room unless absolutely necessary. Five years of clinical experience in hands-on physical assessment and triage skills qualify a nurse for this position. Excellent communication abilities, knowledge of resource information and caring and compassion are needed by the telephone-triage nurse. Some facilities also require computer literacy and typing skills. Nurses may also consider the position of legal nurse consultant or even study to become nurse attorneys. To do medical-legal consultations, law firms and other agencies do not require a law degree or paralegal training but knowledge of civil litigation is necessary. Nurse attorneys need to earn a juris doctor or JD degree (Horsley 55). A RN from Arlington, Massachusetts, recommends an innovative alternative career in paramedical esthetics. After being involved in a restructuring move, she took a six month training course and is qualified to prepare clients for plastic surgery and other medical treatments such as chemical peels and dermabrasion (Kaper 9). Managed care, hospital restructuring, recruitment of unlicensed assistive personnel and an abundance of recently graduated "new" nurses predict vast changes in the nursing workforce. The wide variety of possibilities described above reflect the creativity and growth of the nursing profession. These possibilities also point to critical needs of the nurse today-education and experience. The individual nurse who wants to continue in the profession must regroup and develop a broad outlook for new opportunities. A desire and commitment to learn new tasks and to obtain higher education will assist the professional nurse to keep up with the dynamic changes and trends of the future. Works Cited Balkie, F.W., RN, MBA. "Career Spotlight on Nurse Anesthesia." The American Nursing Student Fall, 1995:2. Editors. "Job Security: Clearing Away the Myths." Nursing 95 25:6 (1995):46-47. Fiesta. Janine. "Home Care Liability-Part I." Nursing Management 26:11 (I995):24, 26. Hansen, Helen E., PhD, RN, CNAA, et al. "Nurse Manager Personal Traits and Leadership Characteristics." Nursing Administration Quarterly 19:4 (1995):23-28. Hoi^TevTfacIfT-JD "Ontions for Nurses Who Are Bitten by R'lg "PMS«-h (I995):55. Jacoby, Allison G., et al. "A CNS Integrated Health Care Delivery System Model." Nursing Management 26:11 (1995):37-38,40. Janowski, Mary Jane, RN, MA. "Is Telephone Triage Calling You?" AJN 95-.9 (1995);59-60,62. Kaper, Maureen, RN. "Looking for a New Career Path?" RN 58:7 (1995);9. Keating. Sarah B. "Quality-of-Life Issues in Home Care." Geriatric Nursing 16:2 (1995):89-91. Michota, Sharon, RN-C, BA. "A Hospital-based Skilled Nursing Facility: A Special Place to Care for the Elderly." Geriatric Nursing 16:2 (l995):64-66. Zachry, Benny R.. Gilbert, Richard L. and Gragg, Meg. "Director of Nursing Finance: Controlling Health Care Costs." Nursing Management 26:11 (I995):49-51.53. Zerwekh, JoAnn and Clabom, Jo Carol. Nursing Today: Transition and Trends. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1994. 62 �Computer Assisted Instruction By Beverly Czerniak Course: Computers in Health Care Instructor: Janice Traylor Assignment: The student was to write about an issue related to Health Care Computing. active form of learning well suited to teaching nursing students. Linear video is the more traditional technology of videotaped programs shown in sequence without intenuplion. Yoder (1994) divided students by style of learning based on two dimensions: the concrete-abstract continuum and the active experimenting-reflective continuum. By placing these two continua on dissecting axes, the learners were divided into four groups. The deciding factor for preferred learning styles proved to be the experimenting "hands-on" approach a.s opposed to the reflective observer, regardless of their abstract/concrete learning styles. The best testing results were with active­ experimenters learning with CAIVI. With the market for Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) exploding into healthcare fields the assumption Is often that technology aids in increased learning across the board. There also is a misconception that anything produced for computer instruction is innately good. This paper is a superficial examination of research conducted to determine the value of CAI and more specifically Computer Assisted Interactive Video Instruction (CAIVI) in nursing programs. A limited initial study (Yoder, 1994) of preferred learning styles and the use of educational technology examined the results of CAIVI vs. linear video instruction on student learning. CAIVI proponents suggest a combination of interaction and video improves cognitive and psychomotor learning - an 63 �The next best results were reflective observers learning from linear videos, followed by active experimenters with linear video and the poorest results being reflective observers using CAIVI (Yoder, 1994). Yixler (1994) concludes that not all students learn best with CAIVI and that learning style interacts with the method of instruction to affect learning. In this study the majority of the students were active experimenters and with nursing being a "hands-on" field there is obvious value in CAIVI. Walker and Ross (1995) proposed that CAIVI is a more effective way to practice Therapeutic Communication than role playing or audiotaped interviews. In using actors, the result was a more realistic use of verbal and nonverbal cues in numerous settings. For example, the nurse sounds involved but is too busy to give the patient her full attention. The student viewing this interaction can see the disappointed look on the patient's face. This use of active observational skills stimulates critical thinking in assessing problems in relationships. Other choreographed interactions included nurse/doctor, nurse/staff, and nurse/family situations. In research involving disadvantaged nursing students (Andris and Sykes, 1995) educators capitalized on the interactive component of CAIVI by designing software to be as interactive as possible. Each question had a tutorial button that, when clicked, took the student back to the exact place in the text where the answer could be found, then returned to the question for another chance. In a study to determine the effect of software design on CAI use, Thede (1994) listed several suggestions to enhance learning: include immediate feedback on questions, telling why an answer was wrong, and the rationale for the correct answer. Any simulated interactions need to connect with real life. Content need.s to be truly interactive and allow for selective review of material. The final suggestion was to keep the information concise - stick to the basics. Thede (1994) also polled students for their concerns about using CAI. The primary concern was the need to know if using the CAI was an efficient use of their study time, was the information valuable, and would they be tested on the material covered. Another request was for hardcopy of the material for review purposes at a later date. Their final concerns were for variety in approach and for help in overcoming computer fear in the form of a computer lab assistant to answer questions. Thede's (1994) conclusion was that, to promote CAI use, there had to be easy access to the computers, adequate help scheduled for assisting computer neophytes and faculty promotion of the value of CAI. In implementing these suggestions at Rutger's University, the voluntary use of CAI rose from 10% to virtually 100% by basing test questions cm CAI material. Based on the information from these studies, I am convinced of the value of Computer Assisted Instruction, especially when there is opportunity for learner interaction, appropriate feedback to reinforce correct answers and to displace incorrect responses, and the ability to review material easily whether on screen or hardcopy. This style of teaching is especially valuable for nursing, which is a "hands on" occupation. Using as much sensory input as possible, e.g. visual, auditory and kinesthetic, can only enhance retention of important information and skills. The obvious concern with CAI is the availability of high quality software that fulfills the needs of both student and course objectives. Currently, there is a limited amount of research data available to influence software designers and an equally limited number of software designers with a strong background in nursing. There are also problems in having computer illiterate nursing educators buying software from a catalog. I agree with the information in these studies. Computer Assisted Interactive Video Instruction is valuable because it offers an advantage over more traditional approaches of technical instruction. 64 �References Andris, J. E, & Sykes, R. K. (1995). Faculty authoring of course-specific software for disadvantaged nursing students using Linkway: A case study. Computers in Nursing 3(2), 71-79. Thede, L. ()., et al. (1994). Computer assisted instruction: A learner's viewpointJournal of Nursing Education. 33(7). 299-305. Walker, D., & Ross, J. M. (1995). Therapeutic Computing; Teaching therapeutic communication utilizing a video disk. Computers in Nursing. 4(3), 103-108. Yoder, M. E. (1994). Preferred learning style and educational technology. Nursing and Health Care. 15(3), 128-32. 65 �Symmetry and M. C. Escher By Tamiko Matney Course: Problem Solving Instructor: Susan Nelson Assignment: Students were asked to write a one or two page report of a math topic from the Problem Solving class. It could be a topic of their choice, but math related. The great mathematician Hermann Weyl once said that "symmetry... is one idea by which man through the ages has tried to comprehend and create order, beauty, and perfection." Traditional symmetry can be infonnally defined as a characteristic of an object that looks exactly the same when seen from two or more different perspectives. Symmetry is an abstract concept that has intrigued mathematicians, naturalists, musicians, writers, physicists, and artists for decades. Perhaps the most popular symmetrical artist of modem times is M. C. Escher. This Dutch artist proved through the popularity of his work that symmetry can intrigue interest in the general public. Maurits Cornelius Escher was bom on June 17, 1898, in Leeuwarden, Netherlands. This shy young man was a poor student who had to repeal several grades. The bright spot in Escher's life was his knack for art. However. Escher's engineer father desired that his son would receive sound scientific training. In 1919, a distraught young Escher entered the School of Architecture and Decorative Arts in Haarlem. Shortly after arriving to study architecture, Escher met S. Jessarun de Mesquila, a graphic artist. Mesquita soon encouraged Escher to change course from architecture to the decorative arts. Mesquita became a close friend and a great influence on Escher's development as a graphic artist. Escher quickly developed a passion for woodcut. Although a keen student, Escher was certainly not a "true" artist. An official college report read that "he (Escher) is too tight, too literary-philosophical, a young man too lacking in feeling." So in 1922, Escher 66 �left art school and spent several weeks traveling through southern Italy with friends. He then look a position as a "nursemaid" to the children ot a family traveling to Spain. During these travels. Escher developed an admiration for the structure and design of buildings in these areas. He also began drawing many landscapes. Escher eventually returned to Italy where he met Jetta Umiker and married her in 1924. Two years later, their first son, George, was bom and the family moved into a larger dwelling that included a fourth floor studio. Escher would often say that the studio was the first place where he could work in peace. During this lime in Escher’s life, the undiscovered artist took to wandering in search of intriguing landscapes to draw. On one of these trips, Escher wa.s arrested and falsely accused of murdering the king of Italy. Later on. Escher would again be wrongly arrested, this lime for spying on Spain. Maybe it was Escher's odd mannerisms that made this eccentric artist prone to such suspicion. Escher remained financially dependent on his parents for a large part of his adult life. It was not until 1951 that Escher received any monetary income from his prints. In 1935, Escher and his family left the political strife of Mussolini's Italy and moved to Switzerland. However, this move was short-lived due to the "horrible white misery of snow." Escher made a deal with a cargo shipping company to exchange his prints for passageway aboard their ships. Finally in 1937, Escher's family set up permanent residence in Belgium. At this point, Escher's style of art began to dramatically evolve from realistic pictorial landscapes to the mathematical realm of symmetry and structure. Lastly, Escher and his wife moved to Holland in 1941. Escher died on March 27, 1972, in a home for elderly artists. Throughout these thirty years, Escher never cea.sed to produce prints on a regular basis. A women once rang me up and said, "Mr. Escher, I am absolutely crazy about your work. In your print Reptiles you have given such a striking illustration of reincarnation." I replied, "Madam, if that's the way you see it, so be it." As is common with great artists, admirers often made arbitrary interpretations of Escher's work. In response, the cynical artist replied, "I have never attempted to depict anything mystic; what some people claim to be mysterious is nothing more than a conscious or unconscious deceit! I have played a lot of tricks, and I have had a fine old time expressing concepts in visual terms, with no other aim than to find out way,s of putting them on to paper. All I am doing in my prints is to offer a report of my discoveries." However, despite Escher's disclaimer, it would be nearly imfK)ssible for one to deny a strange and intriguing aura about his work. Escher’s unusual use of spatial structure and flat surface structure has brought criticism from the art community. On the other hand, mathematicians and physicists worldwide have applauded Escher as a mathematical genius. In response to this unexpected flattery. Escher replied, "I never got a pass mark in math. The funny thing is I seem to latch on to mathematical theories without realizing what is happening... Fancy me consorting with all these learned folk, a.s though I were their long-lost brother. I guess they are quite unaware of the fact that I'm ignorant about the whole thing." One of Escher’s most famous prints is a drawing of a hand that appears to be drawing another hand. Escher took pride in using his drawings to deceive his viewers. In this case - making a two dimensional piece of paper appear to be three dimensional! Another example of this deception is the drawing ol three "apparent" spheres that are really flat circles. Escher was truly a mathematician, visionary and artist who has given mankind a closer look into another world - the world of symmetry. 67 �Works Cited Emsl, Bruno. The Magic Mirror of M. C. E.tcher. New York: Bulluntine Books. 1976. Escher. M. C.. The Graphic Work ofM.C. Escher. New York: Hawthorne Books. 1961 Tannenbaum. Peter and Arnold. RtAert. Excuixionx in Modem Maiheinaticx (2nd edition). Englewood Clih's, N J: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1995. 68 �Spring 1996 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. 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