https://caspercollege.cvlcollections.org/files/original/88fd48311ef57dd3c04a7eaa15c70abf.pdf 4cfc81d36fdaef0ed33bf5a8646c34c9 PDF Text Text CASPER couisi WYOMING CHkLLENEl �Challenge-In every academic discipline, to study, to think, to express clearly one’s knowledge and understanding in suitable written forms. �Challenge Ivii Published at Casper Community College Casper, Wyoming 82601 March 1993 Copyright by Casper Community College CASrE5? c-'' �Challenge: 1993 Table of Contents Directional Eye Movement David Galen ............................................................ 5 Home Schooling Issue Study 8 Cathi Springer ................................ Fact Witness Interview Janet Middaugh ................ 12 The Function of Sandpaintings Kathy Herter...................................................... 15 Letty Stutheit............................................... 19 Caroll Westlake ............................................................................ 22 Gender Differences in Perception The Kwakiutl A Review Kelly Maloney 24 TVacking Annmarie Gosar......................................................................... 21 Feminine Frustration Crazy Horse Bernice Strand . 34 David Carrick For Where Your Treasure Is Carol Castlen ............................. 39 Risk Factors that Influence Success in School Fathers Who Tend Their Children Creation Myths Cameo Olsen .............. 42 Sarah L. Peak ....................... ^1 Randi LatZtozn ....................................... 52 Legal Research Memo Ambu-Man 31 Janet Middaugh ................................ 54 Ari Toews and David Davison ............................. 60 Assistant to the Editor: Carol Castlen Cover design executed by Eric Valdez �Introduction Casper College is pleased to present the seventh issue of Challenge, a magazine to honor excellence. As a display medium for academic endeavor. Challenge solicits superior examples of student writing from all college disciplines; our purpose is to illustrate both the breadth and depth of course work on our campus. Instructors have selected representative writing from their courses, and, though we do not include pieces from writing classes, we encourage all forms: exams, reports, essays, term papers. The college Writing Across the Curriculum Conunittee served as a jury to select articles to be published. This issue represents work submitted in response to the call for papers for two semesters, spring 1992 and fall 1992. Arlene Larson, editor Casper College Casper, Wyoming Spring, 1993 �Directional Eye Movement By David Golen Course: Nonverbal Communication Instructor: Gretchen Wheeler Assignment: Each student must complete either a project or a research paper. The topic for analysis must be in the area of nonverbal communication and should be narrowed to one specific element or hypothesis of one of the aspects discussed in class in the textbook. information. However, "If people shift their eyes directly up or down, without significant right or left movement, they are using both hemispheres simultaneously" (Milner 319). As defined by the Nonverbal Communication text, conjugate lateral eye movement is the joint movement of the eyes either to the right or to the left, up, or down or any combination of these eye movements (Malandro 139). The research question to be answered from the study was: Will a majority (51% or greater) of the people tested show eye movement in one particular direction and will each person's reflective eye movement be made in the same direction when a.sked different types of questions? Introduction The purpose of the research was to determine if people move their eyes in a particular direction while processing information. The topic of research was chosen from chapter six of Nonverbal Communication, which specifically had a section dealing with eye movement It suggested that eveiyone has two processing hemispheres in the brain which are used for different thinking tasks. "People who shift their eyes to the left are using the right hemisphere to process the information" (Malandro 139). Along the same lines, people who shift their eyes to the right are using the left hemisphere to process the 5 �Methods the variation in their eye movement came on the third question. For the first two questions they looked in one direction, and then they looked in the exact opposite direction when asked the third (example: looked up and to the right for the first two questions and then for the third lodced down and to the left). Over all, it was determined that of the 100 people tested, 58 (58%) looked up and to the right, 23 (23%) looked up and to the left, 9% looked directly up, 5% looked down and to the right, 4% looked down and to the left, and only 1 person looked directly down with no horizontal eye movemenL A questionnaire was prepared using questions from section 3.4 of The Nonverbal Communications Workbook. The three questions that were used are (1) How much is 12 x 13? (2) How many letters are there in the word "Washington"? (3) What does it mean to say, "It is better to have loved and lost than never to have loved at all"? Next, a chart was constructed to record the eye movements of the subjects. The chart was divided into six different sections: uplefl, up, up-right, down-left, down, and down­ right. The actual research was conducted on a Saturday afternoon at the local shopping mall. The researcher randomly selected 100 different shoppers of different ages and different sex. Each shopper was asked one question at a time and as they answered the direction of their eye movement was recorded in the appropiate box with a number corresponding to the question asked. For example, if a subject looked up and to the right when asked question number one, then a one was placed in the upper right band box on the chart. The same procedure was conducted for questions two and three on the same chart for that individual. A separate chart was completed for each subject. After 100 shoppers had been questioned, the researcher totaled the number of people that had eye movement in the same direction on all three questions to determine if people always look in the same direction when asked different types of questions. Finally, the researcher totaled the number of people that had eye movement in the same direction to at least two of the questions to determine if a majority of the people tested had a common directional eye movement. Discussion From these results, it can be said that a majority of the people (58%) move their eyes up and to the right when processing information. This suggests that most individuals are using the left hemisphere of the brain to answer the questions. It can also be said, that almost everyone (83%) lodes in the same direction when asked different types of questions. In reviewing the literature, one study titled "Individual Differences in Cognitive Style ■ I. Reflective Eye Movements," conducted by David Galin and Robert Omstein, was found to be similar to this study. Galin and Omstein studied reflective eye movement in "subjects whose vocations emphasized either verbal-analytic or spatial holistic cognitive modes: lawyers and ceramicists" (Galin 367). They also studied a population of non-specialized subjects. They asked questions that demanded verbal or spatial thought before answering, such as the questions from this study. They then scored the first eye movement following the question in lateral and vertical directions. They found that "lawyers and ceramicists differed only in the vertical direction; more up movements for ceramicists than for lawyers" (Galin 367). They also found in their study of the non-specialized subjects, that verbal questions evoked more eye movement in the up and to the right direction. This confirms that the findings of this study are Results Il was found that 83 people out of the 100 tested had eye movement in the same direction for all three questions. The other 17 people had eye movement in the same direction for al least two of the questions. However, for all 17 of those people. 6 �the first direction of movement; - some of the subjects may have been distracted by other activities going on around them in the mall and not giving full attention to the task at hand; - all questions were asked verbally. accurate: the fact that a majority of the people scored had up and to the right eye movements. Finally, an exercise modeled on the research of Galin and Omstein was found in The Nonverbal Communications Workbook. In this exercise it was stated that "approximately 75% of a person's eye movements will be made in the same direction, either to the left or to the right" (DeVito 76). This statement proved to be true in this particular study because it was found that 83% of the people scored moved their eyes in the same direction for all three questions. All in all, this study was beneficial and reliable. It was slightly different than the other studies reviewed, but similar results were achieved. If similar studies were to be conducted, one might look at the differences in eye movement between the different sexes, or even the reflective eye movement of people of different ages, race, or ethnic groups. It might also be interesting to see if the environment and/or occupation has any bearing on direction of eye movement Limitations - all recordings were based on the individuals first eye movement after being asked the questions; - eye movement of some of the subjects was very rapid and was hard to determine which was Works Cited DeViio, Joseph A. The Nonverbal Communications Workbook. Prospect Heights, Dlinois: Waveland Press Inc, 1989. Galin, David, and-Robert Omstein. "Individual Differences in Cognitive Style -1. Reflective Eye Movements." Neuropsychologia 12 (1974): 367-376. Malandio, Loretta A. and Lany Barker and Deborah Ann Darker. Nonverbal Communication. New York: Newbery Award Records, Inc., 1989. Milner, B. "Visually guided Maze Learning in Man; Effects cf Bilateral Frontal and Unilateral Cerebral Lesions." Neuropsychologia 3 (1965): 317-338. 7 �c Home Schooling Issue Study By Cathi Springer Course: Introduction to Sociology Instructor: Dr. Barbara Mueller Assignment: Students were asked to consider the different sides of a controversial issue of their own choosing. After selecting the argument with which they agreed, students were asked a series of questions to respond to from a sociological perspective. Galen and Pitman, pg. 10). Much controversy surrounds the issue of children's being educated at home, with questions being raised such as "Who's in charge of children, the parents or the state?” and "How much education should be required of a parent to home teach?" All fifty states permit home schooling (Johnson, Collins, Dupuis, and Johansen, pg.250). It is estimated that one million children are currently being home schooled. Studies show that these numbers are increasing by twenty percent annually (Van Galen and Pitman, pg. 10). The backbone of the home schooling movement has been the Christian Fundamentalist groups who object to the lack of moral and educational values in the public schools and Home schooling was once a necessary mainstay of education in early America. The home served as the primary social center, the root of moral and spiritual guidance, as well as the means of academic instruction. Much of the focus centered around learning to read the Bible. George Washington, Mark Twain, Margaret Mead, Abraham Lincoln, and Thomas Edison were all home schooled(Gorder, pg.9). Home schooling declined in the early part of the twentieth century due to a drive for compulsory schooling and a strong public goal to see all children graduate from high school(Van Galen and Pilman,pg. 9). Home schooling has reemerged in the last twenty years as a popular option for parents(Van 8 �made on the teachers in these schools each year (John.son, Collins, Dupuis, and Johansen, pg. 165). Parents of home schooled youth are able to shelter their children from these serious social problems. Through home based schooling, parents have the freedom to choose the curriculum as weU as the text books their children will learn from. Many children are introduced at a much earlier age to subjects such as foreign languages, astronomy, and computer science. The findings of a study (Quine and Marek, 1988) suggests that the home schooled child may develop intellectually at a more rapid rate than those in conventional schools (Van Galen and Pitman, pg.57). Although there appear to be obvious advantages to home based schools, there are numerous flaws in the system. In order for home schooling to be a success, a child must be as enthusiastic about the teaching method as his or her parents. Children taught in the home are left out of public and private school sponsored clubs such as Student Council, Future Farmers of America, and debate teams. The opportunity to participate in school theater presentations, sports programs, and music groups is not possible either. Children who are educated at home are isolated from other children their own age. The findings of a study done in 1979 concluded that "students working by themselves or in small groups for long periods of time are handicapped socially (Van Galen and Pitman, pg. 52). In a 1988 questionnaire, based on a systematic random sample of home based families, parents cited that extra effort must be expended to provide social contact for their children (Van Galen and Pitman, pg.57). This is an indication that home schooled children have to put forth an extra effort to make friends in comparison to other children. Public or privately educated children benefit from the latent function of socialization that schools provide naturally. Opponents of home schooling cite the laws as being lenient regarding the amount of education required to home teach. They also oppose the way in which yearly standardized tests are administered. In a 1985 survey, the Washington numerous federal laws regarding public education and religion. In a 1963 U.S. Supreme Court case it was decided that reading the Bible and reciting the Lord’s Prayer in public schools violate the First and Fourteenth Amendments. In a 1968 federal court case the court decided that to forbid the teaching of evolution as a theory violates the First Amendment, yet in a 1987 case the U. S. Supreme court decided that a state cannot require schools to teach the biblical version of creation (Johnson, Collins, Dupuis, and Johansen, pg. 251). Families who have chosen home schooling, in place of public or private education, feel there are many advantages and rewards. Parents who h«ne school their children enjoy one hundred percent involvement in their children’s education. Mothers are the primary educators in hcxne based schools. They can devote their attention to their own child’s educational needs and progress with daily monitoring. According to a Washington poll, a majority of parents who home teach say they spend an average of twenty to thirty hours with their children each week (Van Galen and Pitman, pg. 17). Both the children and their parents say the teacher - pupil relationship is solid, secure, and warm. This emotional bond is an important requirement for learning. "The average time a parent spends talking with their child daily is eleven minutes and seven of those minutes are spent reprimanding the child. (A direct quote from Charlene Davis, Foundations of Education). The 1980 Gallop Poll indicated that the American public regards the lack of discipline as the biggest problem in our public school systems (Gorder, pg. 13). The U. S. Senate Committee on Delinquency has estimated that school vandalism costs our nation over six hundred million dollars each year. The National Association of School Security Directors estimates that each year there are twelve thousand armed robberies, two hundred seventy thousand burglaries, two hundred and four thousand aggravated assaults, and nine thousand rapes in our schools. Furthermore, an estimated seventy thousand serious physical assaults are 9 �standardized, very structured and expect formal code role behaviors, society is very slow in accepting and correcting problems that arise. I believe a sociologist would view home schooling as a legal, perfectly acceptable option for families. After all, these families pay local property taxes for public education even though their children reap none of the benefits. I feel a sociologist would also be quick to point out that home schooling requires a nuclear family situation where the father is the prime source of family income and the mother is the nurturer. With nuclear families declining, home schooling may never have a chance to prosper fully. In my opinion, the laws should be more strict in regard to the educational requirements of home school instructors. I feel this will determine whether parents will seek higher education for themselves to teach their children at home. If they do not choose to do so, our compulsory attendance laws will force parents to enroll their children into public (X private schools. The only problem that may arise from my solution would be that families may choose to band together and have one qualified educator teaching larger groups of children and in essence forming their own private schools. With home based education still being fine tuned, it is hard to measure the results and the direct effects it will have on the children involved. Public and private education provides children with many challenging experiences that home schooled children are not exposed to. For instance, the daily task of being on time to meet the bus, waiting your turn in line in the school cafeteria and sharing the teacher's attention with other students. All of these things prepare children for a realistic, positive work experience which follows schooling. Isn't this what education is about, after all? "Introduction to Sociology" has greatly expanded my awareness of social issues and problems that 1 bad never been exposed to. I believe this course will help me to belter perfonn the duties of an elementary education teacher. Department of Public Instruction reported that seven percent of the parents leaching their children at home did not have a high school degree. One* fourth of those surveyed held a high school diploma, forty-one percent reported some college, sixteen percent held a bachelor's degree, and a few had only General Equivalency Diplomas (Van Galen and Pitman, pg. 14). Only two stales require that teachers in home schools be slate certified to teach. A yearly national standardized test is required of all children in home school settings to provide documented proof of annual educational achievement. The validity of the test score is directly related to the manner in which the test is administered, and almost all achievement tests are intended for group administration according to prescribed procedures. When a home schooled child is iested,this environment certainly is not present. Although not necessarily appropriate, concessions are sometimes made for home schoolers simply because the child is not tested in a group setting. The result may be some laxity in adhering to the timing guidelines. The results are then skewed. In my opinion, home schooling will be around in the next decade. I do not think the numbers of children home schooled will ever surpass the numbers of children being educated in public or private schools. With Christian Fundamentalist groups being the leaders in the home schooling movement, I feel they won't make serious attempts to sway people towards their beliefs and prefer to be left alone. Should these sects or cults deteriorate with lime, I predict home schooling will also wane. Our public school system is suffering at this lime with problems such as seven percent illiteracy rate in Natrona County alone. One and one-half million teenaged girls become pregnant each year. The United Stales has one of the highest divorce rales in the world, which no doubt effects our educational system with numerous added pressures placed on children. Education is an institution which is very much interrelated with the family institution. Because institutions are 10 �Sources Home SchooLf An Alternative, by Cheryl Gorder, Blue Bird Publishing, 1990. Home Schooling, by Jane Van Galen and Mary Anne Pitman, Ablex Publishing Corporfflion, 1991 ■ The How and Why ofHome Schooling, by Ray Ballmann, Good News Publishers, 1987. The Home School Manual, by Theodcne Wade, Gazelle Publications, 3rd edibon, 1988. The Clearing House for the Contemporary Educator in MidtBe and Secondary Schools, Testing Problems of Home Schooled Children" by Richard J. Mueller, volume 62, March 1989. Introduction to the Foundations ofAmerican Education, by James A. Johnson, Harold W. Collins, Victor L Dupois, John H. Johansen, puUished by Allyn and Bacon, Sth edition, 1991. 11 �Fact Witness Interview By Janet Middaugh Course: Legal Research II Instructor: Mary Kubichek Assignment: Students were to interview someone who witnessed an incident of sexual harrassment and then draft a statement from the point of view of the witness. 12 �Witness Cover Sheet Case: Otis v. Bead Our File: 00-29-10-92 Dale & Time Taken: October 20,1992 at 12:20 p,m. Taken Dy: Janet Middaugh Au Casper College, Room 172 Administration Bldg. Witness: Name: SSN: Address: Home Phone: Work Phone: Marital Status: Other Contacts: Anne Brandt 520-20-1720 180 Grandview Casper, WY 82604 473-1755 577-1642 Single Occupation: My name is Anne Brandt. That is my full name, I have no other names or nicknames. I live at 180 Grandview, Casper, Wyoming 82604. I have lived al this address for one year. My home phone number is 473-1755. I am 21 years old, single, and never married. I am legal guardian of my threeyear-old nejAew John, who lives with me. John's mother was my sister, who was killed in an accident. Since my parents’ recent divorce, my mother has also been living with me. I work fulltime as a receptionist at Parts, Inc. I have been working there almost two years. I also woik parttime in the evenings as a waitress at Casper Inn, and attend night classes in business related subjects at Casper College. My mother lakes care of John for me since she is unemployed at this time. Three people who are able to contact me at all times, besides my mother , are Tess Brown, 21 Erma, (Zasper, Wyoming 82601, 577-8119; Joe Jones, 101 Sun Dr., Casper, Wyoming 82609, 237-7007; and Lynn Wright, 240 Grand, (Zasper, Wyoming 82601, 473-1755. Until recently, I wraked together with (Zarol Otis as receptionists at Parts, Inc. Carol had worked there for about five months. I had known Carol for several years prior to her employment with Parts, Tess Brown (Friend) 21 Erma Casper. WY 8260 577-8119 Joe Jones (Friend) 101 Sun Dr. Casper, WY 82609 237-7007 Receptionist, Parts Inc. Waitress, Casper Inn Inc. We are good friends. At about three in the afternoon on the day (Zarol left Parts, Inc., we had been talking about Carol's brother as we worked. He had recently been laid off his job and was thinking of moving down south to look for work. I was silting at the reception desk sorting invoices and (Zarol was standing and filing papers into the cabinets just to the right of the desk. We were both dressed casually in jeans and sweaters. This was our usual attire at work. I cannot remember the exact style or color either of us were wearing that day. Mr. Bead then entered the reception area from the hallway to the right I do not know if he was coming from his office or the warehouse, which are both accessed down that hallway. He approached Carol al the file cabinets, put his arm around her shoulders, and said, "My wife is out of town tonight, want to go out with me?" (Zarol answered "No" emphatically and moved away from Mr. Bead. Mr. Bead then raised his hands palm up in a surrender gesture and said, "Okay," sarcastically. Carol turned her back to Mr. Bead and he slapped her hard on the butt and returned back down the hallway. Carol stood with a stunned look on her face for a moment, then burst into tears, grabbed 13 �version of the incident is clear and convincing, she is lacking detail in many other areas. She is very reticent in talking about her background and personal life. She had trouble as a teenager and has a juvenile conviction for shoplifting. She also had a drinking problem as a teenager, though now she has given up alcohol and never drinks. Anne wears either contact lens or glasses every day and has recently had her lens prescription updated. She takes no drugs, including prescription drugs. Anne’s loyalties are split. She feels sympathy for Carol over Mr. Bead's treatment of her, but is fearful of losing her job if she testifies adversely toward Mr. Bead. Anne has never testified in court before and is reluctant to do so now. She is undecided on whether Mr. Bead’s treatment of Carol was sexual harassment. Anne's home life is in an uncertain slate. Her parents divorced recently and her mother is living with her and her nephew. Her father is living in Saudi Arabia. Anne and her mother have discussed moving lo Arabia to be close to him, on his request. Aime has a very busy life and admits to being tired on the day of the incident. If we decide we must use Anne to testify, we will have lo spend extra lime preparing her for trial. She is very worried that her testimony may result in losing her job. As a result, we may have to subpoena her to appear. her purse aiid jacket and ran out of the building through the front door. She never returned. Though there was some noise from the warehouse behind the reception room, I heard and saw the whole incident clearly. This was not the first time that I heard and saw Mr. Bead ask Carol on a date. She had always refused definitely to go out with him. I cannot remember exactly how many limes or when I witnessed Mr. Bead asking Carol on dates. Mr. Bead often joked with the employees and told stories. Mostly these were off-color jokes and stories. He is rude and sometimes difficult to gel along with. He seems lo gel on better with the male employees. I have been able to get along okay with Mr. Bead. Besides Carol, 1 know of no other female employees that Mr. Bead has dated, tried lo date, w touched. Mr. Bead has never dated, tried to date, or touched me. He is a married man. I have no personal attraction toward Mr. Bead. I have spoken by phone with Carol since she left Parts, Inc., but we did not discuss this incident, I have not spoken to anyone else about it I believe that Carol had spoken to Lynn Wright, the personnel manager about Mr. Bead. Impressions Anne Brandt, who was a witness to the incident involving our client, Carol Otis, will make a rather weak witness for our case. She was well-dressed and well-groomed, but quite nervous. Though her 14 �The Function of Sandpaintings By Kathy HeHer Course: Native American Literature Instructor: Jacqueline Valdez Assignment: Write a research paper on a topic of interest to you discovered during your study of American Native literatuie. Jamake Highwater in his book Arts of the Indian Americas states that there are more than 1,000 different forms of sandpainting. He goes on to explain that sandpaintings are "used as a central part of the Navaho curing ceremonies, by which harmony with the cosmos is maintained" (319). Dorothy Dunn in her book American Indian Paintings refers to sandpainting as "a visual embodiment of Navajo religion" (113). Dunn further indicates that most sand paintings were done on hogan floors and rarely were done on softened buckskin. She additionally refers to sandpainting as "the spirit of Indian art" (113). Dunn explains that sandpaintings "are contained in their ccxnpleteness only in memory by a few men of the tribe who have had the generosity, the patience, and the mental capaci^ to learn them bit by bit from a master chanter" (113). Jill and Peter Furst in their book North American Indian Arts describe sandpainting as a pictorial prayer which, by depicting the Holy People, the gods, in a beautiful way, enlisted them in restoring health, harmony and beauty to life. Navajos called this condition hozo. Hozo is not only desirable; it is the natural condition of the world, and the condition which must be restored if self, society or the environment has become unbalanced, ugly, or disharmonious. The Navajos have blessing and curing rites for everylhing-’people, places, houses, crops, livestock, the opening of a store, mental and 15 �inside the house, lo inform the gods that they are expected, and to warn persons that are not concerned with the ceremony that they should slay away. Reichard, an anthropologist who lived with the Navahos, states that one painting is made on each of the fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth days of the ceremony. She stales that "a simple painting may be finished by one or two painters in half an hour; an elaborate one may require from three to forty assistants working eight to ten hours" (xxxvi). Dorothy Dunn indicates that sandpainlings vary in size from twelve inches (X so in diameter to a full twenty feel across (114). When the painting is finished the person (patient) sits on it or sleeps on it. While the patient is sitting on it, the chanter applies sand from the various figures of the painting to specified parts of the patient’s body and performs other ritualistic acts (this usually occurs on the eighth day). All of this is done to identify the patient with the deities represented in the painting. The National Geographic Society stales that the patient "relives the trial of a long-ago hero cured by the gods" (197). They go on lo state that "Modem medicine marvels when there is a cure, but the principle is old: Mind and body are one. The Navajo treat the patient, not the illness; the ritual will bring him back into harmony with himself and the world" (197). The rile lasts about half an hour on each of the fifth, sixth and seventh days and from an hour to two and a half hours on the eighth day. The mythical protagonists saw the first sandpaintings on clouds and other materials which were perishable. Sand is a substitute for the clouds and the other perishable materials. Also, whenever an object is lacking for a ceremony, it can be represented in sand. Sandpainling is a vital part of many ceremonies. Certain paintings cannot be made in the summer months without being restricted. Some paintings operate to ward off evil forces and influences, while others are made to maintain favorable conditions or to heal damage done by evil agents. physical illness, a young man leaving lo join (he army or reluming from the outside worid. Whatever needs to be set right is placed in the sacred center of the miraculous events of the mythic past, a time when everything was possible, a lime when the Holy Ones, the benevolent gods, and the Hero Twins, children of Father Sky and Mother Earth, battled and vanquished the forces of darkness, evil, and disharmony and received all the sandpainlings and all the curing chants the medicine men use today. (35-36) The World of the American Indian refers to sandpainling as a "transitory tapestry in sand" (197). Most of the information provided in this paper pertains to the Navajo tribe. It is believed that the Navajo borrowed much of their material culture from the Pueblos. For the Navajos, every illness has a spiritual as well as a physical dimension and to attempt to cure one while ignoring the other would be useless. Gladys Reichard in her book Navaho Religion slates that a ceremony may be recommended lo drive.away fear, to cure symptoms such as colds, fever, sore throat, fatigue, and lameness but that "disharmony shows up in ways other than illness. The same ceremony may be held to attract the good offices of animals, rain and other protective gods" (11). She further indicates that man's life is called a "walk through time. He travels a trail repeatedly symbolized in sandpaintings and ritual. The purpose is to cany him safely and pleasantly along this road from birth to dissolution" (37). Sandpainting is one of the elements that goes into a ceremony or chant. The other elements include the medicine bundle, song, prayer, plants, body and figure painting, sweating and emetic (causing vomiting) rituals and vigil. The sandpaintings become part of the ceremony on the fifth day. At this time, an altar is formed outside the dwelling in which the ceremony is held, usually a hogan. On the altar is placed the chanter's bundle which consists of all of the items sacred to the chant or ceremony. The altar is there lo announce the preparation of a sandpainling 16 �book North American Indian Ans. It seems that in 1919 a respected medicine man named Hosteen Klah, or Left-Hand, ...occasioned much grumbling among his fellow Navajos and, some thought, but for his great prestige might even have put his life in danger by combining his extraordinary talents as a weaver and his ceremonial knowledge to produce a large sandpainting tapestry, as fine as any of the early Navajo blankets. This violated a cardinal rule: that sandpaintings depicting the magical deeds of ancient heroes and the Holy People must be obliterated at the end of the curing ceremony in which they were used, and must not be made permanent (35). Evidently Klah thought a long time before agreeing to make the piece, and be did so only after be was assured that the weaving would not be pul on the floor for people to walk over the Holy Beings. In recent years the Navajos have added sandpaintings on boards to their inventory of folk art for sale. This is where my naive interest came into play. I bought my first sandpainting from an Indian at the Four Comers and thought that this was the way they had always been presented. Obviously, it is the way they are always presented to the public. I have found that the sandpaintings they have for sale have changes in details which are introduced to avoid giving offense to the Holy People and to "render the sandpaintings ceremoniously useless and therefore harmless," according to Jill and Peter Furst (36). The Fursts go on to say that if the correct form were to be made permanent, "the power of the painting would be too great for the uninitiated" (37). Now the sandpaintings are dying, one by one, because the technology of the press of the modem world is overwhelming them. Were it not for the careful recordings of a few painstaking and appreciative people, they would be lost forever. Dorothy Dunn describes the process of sandpainting in this manner; Dipping into their pine-bark trays of sandweighted pigments, the painters precisely deposit small streams of color which flows as evenly between thumb and forefinger as sand through the neck of an hourglass. They draw figures, then clothe them according to tradition. To rectify an error, a painter covers it over with sand and starts afresh, but mistakes are seldom made (114). Dunn states that the colors red, yellow and white are from pulverized sandstones or from ochres powdered and given body with plain sand. Black is of root charcoal, sometimes enlivened by minute quantities of warm colors. Blue is a mixture of black and white, in reality a gray but which appears as blue in use. Less common colors such as brown and pink are also mixtures of basic colors (115). Grinding is done on stone metates (a stone with a flat or concave surface where material is ground with a smaller stone), and pigments are stored in leather pouches. Upon completion of the sandpainting, according to The National Geographic Society, the sand "must by sunset be scattered to the winds lest evil spirits come and make mischief" (197). Reichard says. The disposal of substances and properties (of the ceremony] is just as important as the preparation. Helpers scrape the sand into a blanket and deposit it outside in a place designated by the singer. If the painting belongs to a Holy Chant, all may be emptied in one place. If it is a painting of an Evil Chant, one portion may be placed under the patient's pillow for the night and another scattered in one or more directions outside, each night farther and farther from the hogan (343-44). The idea is that the sand absorbs the evil. On the other hand, some of the sand may be placed under the patient's bed so that he may absorb the good of the supematurals represented by the sand. An exception to the sandpainting's being destroyed was told by Jill and Peter Furst in their 17 �Works Cited Duno, Dorothy. American Indian Paintings: Of The Southwest and Plains Area. New Mexico: UofNM. P, 1968. Furst, Jill L. and Peter T. North American Indian Art. New York: Rizzdi IntemauoDal Publications, Inc., 1982. Highwater, Jamake. Arts of the American Indiarts: Leaves from the Sacred Tree. New Ycxk: Harper Row, 1983. National Geographic Society. The World of the American Indian. Washington, D.C.: National Geograi^iic Book Service, 1979. Reichard, Gladys A. Navaho Religion: A Study if Symbolism. Winceton and London: U of Princeton P, 1950. Foreward Copyright 1963. 18 �Gender Differences in Perception By Letty Stutheit Course: Child Psychology Instructor: Dr. Ruth Doyle Assignment: The major assignment for the course is applied research based on one of the seven research designs discussed in class. This is a descriptive research design assessing perceptual differences of children based on gender. ABSTRACT This is a descriptive research of the ability of children to discern and later recall the location of objects in a random pattern. The children's abilities were tested by using two pictures of objects. The children were asked to first study picture ”A’’then the children were asked to locate the objects added to picture "A" on picture "B". The children's ability to locate and recall objects in a random pattern is based on the number of correct answers minus the number of incorrect answers given. The results showed female children in grades kindergarten through four scored higher than their male classmates. 19 �Operational Definitions 1. Introduction discern: to recognize and identify random pattern; no specific pattern This is a descriptive research of the gender differences in the ability of children to discern and later recall the location of objects in a random pattern. The children's abilities were tested using two pictures of objects. Extraneous Variables Children below kindergarten level were unable to complete the task. Most probably there were too many objects on picture "B" for them to deal with. The scores for these children are not included in the results as they were inconclusive. 2. A few of the students in grades K - 4 did not follow instructions. These students "X"ed the familiar objects from picture "A” instead of the new objects. Those scores are not included in the results. 1. Problem The problem of the research was to describe the gender differences in the ability of children to discern and later recall objects in a random pattern. Rationale Theoretically female students spend more time on the detail of objects than their male classmates. Illis shows in their higher performance in reading and math in the primary grades. 11. Methods and Procedures Hypothesis Subjects There are no gender differences in the ability of children to discern and later recall objects in a random pattern. The subjects for this research were preschoolers ages 3-5 of daycare and the kindergarten through grade four students at elementary school. Limitations Instrumentation Access to intact groups of children of targeted age. 2. John Henry Effect --to control for this effect the tester will not tell the subjects what the objective is. 3. The ability of the children to follow directions. The instruments used were two pictures of objects found in most home environments. Picture "A" has Tl objects placed randomly in the picture. Picture "B" has the same objects in the same locations as picture "A", plus 20 new objects placed randomly throughout the picture. 1. 20 �allotted for studying picture "A" while male students utilized only about half the allotted time. The average scores for each grade are represented on the graph below. Procedure The children were given picture "A" face down on the desk. The children were instructed to turn over the picture and study the objects and their locations for two minutes. At the end of the two minutes the pictures were collected, and picture "B” was placed face down on the desk. The children were then instructed to turn over the picture, locate all the new objects they could find and mark those objects with an "X" in one minute. rV. Conclusion, Implications and Recommendations The results of this research follow closely with the reading and math abilities of primary grade school students. The ability to discern and later recall the location of objects in a random pattern may coincide with reading and math abilities. Based on the observation that female students utilized their time more wisely than male students, the implication may be that the female students concentrate harder and are more oriented toward symbols and objects than male students of the same age. Tasks for stimulating male concentration ability, recognition and memory skills may increase the overall score of male students in math and reading. Scoring The scores were determined by the number of correct objects marked minus the number of incorrect objects marked. III. Results The hypothesis was rejected. In every grade tested, the female students scored higher than their male classmates. The tester also observed that on the average female students in every grade level utilized the entire two minutes 21 �The Kwakiutl Indians: Their World View and Orientation By Caroll Westlake Course: Introduction to Cultural Anthropology Instructor: Dr. Barbara Mueller Assignment: Students were to analyze an ethnography of their own choosing providing examples of each of the four values identified in Kluckhohn's and Strodtbeck's model of "world view." some unknown lime in the future is overridden by the immediate desire to slay home and participate in the drinking party. Further evidence of their focus on the present is the fact that few of the Kwakiutl save funds for fuuire emergencies. When the fisherman's union called a strike it did not take long for the effects to be fell by the villagers because there were no private funds to fall back on in the emergency. The Kwakiutl orientation to the present is also shown by their disregard for prompmess. Rohner states that, "Prescheduled events, except school, rarely begin al the designated lime because few families start getting ready until it is time for the Relationship to Time The Kwakiutl Indians are primarily concerned with the present Ronald P. Rohner observed that “the Kwakiutl prefer to guide their lives according to events such as when they feel tired or feel some other pressure...,’’ (Rohner, 1970, p.l7). For example, episodic drinking is a favorite activity in the village of Gilford. When a drinking party is in progress, men of the village who are employed in nearby logging camps may arrive al work late or fail to show up at all. The possibility that they may lose their jobs along with much needed income docs not appear to be of serious concern. The need for money at 22 �sharing as a leveling influence also contributes to this orientation. Rohner states, "No individual can sink loo low or rise too high...because of the patterns of borrowing and sharing" (39). This practice discourages a focus on the future, so "the motivation to accumulate more than enough to satisfy short-term desires is weak" (Rohner, 1970, p.4O). They have no need to scrabble for excess wealth or power and this in turn leaves them free to focus on the moment and the process of being. activity to begin. Both Indians and Whiles sometimes refer to this orientation as "Indian time" (Rohner, 1970, p.l7). Relationship to the Physical World The KwakiutJ culture defines itself as subject to the whims of the natural world. They prefer to deal with the world as it is rather than trying to change it. For example, they think of themselves as fishermen, and as such they are subject to the whims of nature and a sometimes fickle market. The logging industry could be a much more stable source of funds for them as their lands are surrounded by great forests. However, they continue to consider themselves fishermen and involve themselves in the logging industry only reluctantly. Rohner tells of receiving several letters from villagers in which an attitude of passive acceptance is expressed. “The fishing is very poor the last few weeks,” wrote Patrick Cedar. “O, well that's part of life I guess, you got to take what you gel and give what you got” (Rohner, 1970, p.35). Relationship to One Another At present the Kwakiutl appear to be moving toward a more individualistic society than that of their fathers. They have retained very little of the traditional ranks and class system that characterized the Indians Franz Boas studied. One of the villagers commented that, "the thing about this village is that its every man for himseir (Rohner, 1970, p.64). On the other hand, the Band council that was set up by the Canadian government has proven to be ineffective. The main reason for this, Rohner states, is that "the authority vested in the council is inconsistent with village normative standards" (Rohner, 1970, p.59). Certain norms and social controls are strongly in evidence. For example, "Serious damage to the body or to property is rarely committed even during periods of the most unrestrained parties and fighting" (Rohner, 1970, p.44). They are in a period of transition toward individualism. At the same time, this trend is being restrained by powerful social controls and normative standards. Relationship to Activity Members of the Kwakiutl put emphasis on the process of being rather than that of becoming or achieving. This attitude is linked to their passive acceptance of the world around them and their focus on the present rather than the future. It allows them to feel free to simply enjoy the process of being. The practice of borrowing and Reference Source: Rohner, Ronald P., Kwakiutl Indians ofBritish Columbia, 1970. 23 �A Review of Shakespeare’s Henry V By Kelly Maloney Course: Introduction to Theatre Instructor: TomEmpey Assignment: Watch a filmed version of a Shakespearean play and critique the movie, commenting on acting, directing, technical aspects; discuss language and theme. directed by its star, Kenneth Branagh (no slouch of an actor himself), who also adapted his version for the screen. Branagh is relatively unknown to American audiences, with the most successful film be has starred in so far being Dead Again from a couple years ago. The basic plot of both versions, as you might imagine, is the same. The young king of England, Henry V, is goaded into war by the Prince Dauphin of France. Harry, as the king thinks of himself, raises an army, sails across the English channel, and gives ’em hell. His small, travelfatigued army defeats a much larger French force, and the French king surrenders. As an item of the For this review of a filmed play by William Shakespeare, I chose Henry V for two reasons. First, I knew Kenneth Branagh had filmed a version in 1989, and I had heard it was quite good. Also, I had not seen it. Second, 1 figured that if Laurence Olivier had bothered to perform a filmed version (in 1944, which I also had not seen), the story would probably be worth the time spent deciphering the language. Wanting to see which was the better version, I watched both. The 1944 version of Henry V starred, was produced by, and was directed by Sir Laurence Olivier, who happens to be the most celebrated classical actor of all time. The 1989 version was 24 �he said, whether be needed to or not. There was little difference between the (supposedly) emotional scene where Hany expresses his anger over France decimating the baggage wagons, and the scene at the end where he tries to woo F*rincess Katherine. 1 much preferred Branagh’s more human interpretation of King Harry. The feeling I got was that Olivier was playing a king who had to put up with being a mere human, while Branagh was playing a man who just happened to be king. When Branagh's Harry expresses his anger over the French treachery, you know he is really angry, and barely in control of his temper. You know be feels it Another big difference was the portrayal of the French Dauphin. In the 1944 film the crown prince seemed to need to be protected from harm. He was treated like a spoiled child by the group of nobles he hung out with, and sat out most of the Battle of Agincourt on a nearby hillside. In the 1989 version, the Dauphin (played by a man named Michael Maloney, by the way) is played as the adult that he is. He just seems like one of those people who haven't yet come to realize what effect their decisions and actions have on the lives of others. He played an integral part during the battle scene at Agincourt Olivier and Branagh, as directors, very differently interpreted the language that is used. Even though William Shakespeare wrote the words, the style is nowhere near similar between the two plays. For example, Olivier tended to "project" his voice throughout the film, even though once the scene shifted to the movie format, it really was no longer appropriate. Branagh, on the other hand, used such "projection" techniques only when it was necessary for his character to do so, like when he was addressing crowds of his soldiers, or his enemies who were quite far away. Because of his noimal speech patterns, the words be was speaking were easier for me to understand, thus making his version of the play easier to understand. Another thing that made it easier for me to negotiated terms of surrender, Harry wins the hand of Princess Katherine in marriage, and thereby unites the countries of England and France under one ruler, at least for a while. Olivier's version opens in a unique fashion, with a panoramic view of medieval London, finally closing in on the Globe Theatre, where we witness the presentation of the play Henry V in front of an audience as it might have been. The people attending the show at the Globe are asked to use their imaginations, or, as the chorus puts it in his introduction, "on your imaginary forces work." This is probably helpful, since the scenery at the time wasn't anything more than a scenic backdrop pulled like a curtain across the back of the stage. After a few scenes, the play shifts to a regular film format. The film scenery of 1944, however, isn't much better than the stage scenery. Although there are sets, for the castles, battlefields, baggage wagons, etc., the backgrounds are represented by what are obviously paintings. Whether this represents bow limited the special effects capabilities of the 194O’s were, or is a directoral decision by Olivier, is hard to tell. In contrast, the scenery of the 1989 version is as realistic as any other film produced these days. The chorus has a short introduction in what looks like the backstage area of a movie set, which is probably an acknowledgement of Olivier's opening scene. When the "play" begins, it opens immediately in a regular movie format. This style is a big improvement for a modem audience; there are no painted backdrops here. The battle scene at Agincourt is particularly good, since the middle of the battlefield, where all the action takes place, ends up looking like a small muddy pond, due to a rainstorm in the midst of the battle. As far as the characterization and language use, there is a similar contrast between the two versions. Olivier may be the greatest classical actor ever, but 1 doubt that this is his greatest classical acting, he failed to recognize the different acting styles needed for stage and screen, and ended up as a tin man, projecting everything 25 �Perhaps the biggest difference in the two adaptations of the same play is concerning the effect that war has on man, which is the theme of the play. There were 10,000 Frenchmen killed on the battlefield, "of which 500 were but yesterday dubbed knights." There were about 500 English dead, four of whom were nobility, and friends of the king. Olivier's King Harry seemed to be saddened by this, but not overly so. He was willing to accept this, and probably didn't think about it again. Branagh's Harry, on the other hand, appeared to be genuinely saddened by it, and did think about it again, as he is sitting at the treaty table. As Harry said, upon reading the death toll of the French forces, "Here was a royal fellowship of death." It was then that he seemed to wonder if it had all been worth it. People today wonder the same about Vietnam, so we haven't changed much in hundreds of years. Shakespeare wrote Henry V to make us think about the futility of war, and if I had never thought about it before, it would probably have done the trick. Too bad be didn't write a play showing us how to make war obsolete. understand Branagh's version was that all the characters, from the king to the nobles to the lowliest thief, were recognizable as people. Even a couple of the enemy, such as the Dauphin, and the herald had recognizable personalities. Olivier's supporting cast didn't seem to be as good as Branagh's, and I recognized a couple names in the credits of Branagh's film from Franco 2^efferelli's 1990 version of Hamlet. The fear that was apparent in all the Englishmen's faces before, and during the beginning of, the French charge at the climactic battle at Agincourt is nothing short of believable. I couldn't help but wonder bow many of those men would bolt to save their own lives. The portrayal of the French herald Monijoy was very realistic, and you begin to see him as Montjoy, the herald for the French, instead of just the French herald, as you did in Olivier’s film. It is obvious that, in the 1989 movie, be comes to respect King Hany and the courage of the English forces the more he comes in contact with them, something that just didn't happen in the earlier version. In Olivier's version, the character never changed. 26 �c Tracking An Issue of Choice By Annmarie Gosar Course: Foundations of Education Instructor: Charlene Davis a topic pertaining to education, using at least Assignment: Write a mini-research paper three difTerent sources. The best approach to grouping students must be found by examining different sides of the issue through research data and by deciding on a viable plan. The best solution may be to borrow ideas from a system in another country and to modify these ideas to meet the needs of students in the United States. Researchers are busy gathering new data and examining existing data to provide a valid base for change. Given the extremes evident in the reform movemenu educators must carefully analyze the results of studies and arrive at a thoughtful compromise between heterogeneous and homogeneous grouping. The public school system is undergoing changes that affect organizational and curricular structures for all students. "Social- political demands" are being made for educators to guarantee higher achievement levels and increased capacity of students to think. Educators have responded to the demands in various ways (Van Tassel-Baska, 68). Controversy pervades the current status of education because not everyone agrees on the solutions. Panaceas to the educational ills are being touted from every direction. One of the most controversial issues involves changes in the areas of grouping and classroom strategies. 27 �To be fair, the pros and cons of the studies on grouping must be considered. AO educational researchers seem to agree that solutions must provide students with equal opportunities and equal access to educational experiences. They do not, however, agree as to how this goal can be achieved. Jeanine Oakes, UCLA professor and author of Keeping Track, has charged that ability grouping is discriminatory, unfair, and ineffective. In her view, no children gain from placement in homogeneous classes, and children are harmed both intellectually and psychologically by grouping (O'Neil, 18). On the other band, James A. Kulik and ChenLin C. Kulik, Education professors at the University of Michigan, refute Oakes’ findings. The Kulik study shows clear and consistent academic benefits from grouping programs. "The academic benefits are clearest for those in the higher ability groups, but students in the lower groups are not harmed academically by grouping and they gain academic ground in some grouping programs." The study also notes that ability grouping does not have devastating effects on student self-esteem. Talented students may become slightly less satisfied with themselves when taught with their intellectual peers; slower students may gain slightly in self-confidence when they are taught with other slower learners. Kulik and Kulik "believe that American schools would be harmed by the elimination of programs that tailor instruction to the aptitude, achievement, and interests of groups with special educational needs" (Kulik, 73). Robert E. Slavin, Johns Hopkins University, concludes from his research that ability grouping is not beneficial for high ability students. He does, however, admit that the popular press has distorted the research, making ability grouping appear disastrous for the achievement of all students. Slavin believes that schools must recognize individual differences and allow all students to reach their full potential. "They do this by using flexible within-class grouping strategies .... In some cases, acceleration may be justified for extremely able students. But the great majority of students can and should learn together" (Slavin, 69). Feldhusen and Moon regard learning together, cooperative learning, as an effective teaching strategy for some basic skills. They also conclude that grouping students of high ability with low or average lower achievers retards their progress in learning, but they agree that cooperative learning among these youth is effective if it focuses on high-level conceptual material and if it is accelerated. Low-track students, on the other hand, would not benefit from heterogeneous grouping or cooperative learning, and their problems with under-achievement and with behavior diminish the achievement for middle- and high-track students. Furthermore, they believe that using bright students to teach others can be exploitive, resulting in the neglect of the learning needs of talented students (Feldhusen, 63). Obviously opinions differ greatly. So how can educators determine who is right? Susan Demirsky Allan, Consultant for Gifted Education/Fine Arts for the Dearborn, Michigan, Public Schools, recognizes the need for making informed decisions based on the findings about ability grouping. "They [educators] must study the original research and be sure that the questions they are asking are the same ones posed by the researchers." She discovered that one question not asked in the Slavin research was whether programs designed to provide differentiated education for gifted or special education students are effective. Those programs were omitted from Slavin’s syntheses. Allan concludes, "It is ironic that some school systems are using the Slavin best-evidence synthesis to make decisions about gifted and special education programs when such an application clearly is inappropriate" (Allan, 61). On the other hand, Kulik and Kulik did address the effectiveness of gifted programs in their meta­ analyses. Their results show positive gains for students in gifted programs, which they attribute to the specialized curriculum and materials used and to the teacher training (Ibid). Another close look at 28 �competence or needs but not acctxding to ability. When students turn 15 they are tracked into specialized schools (Follain, 11). Perhaps educators in the United States could modify the French system and make it work. Children should be grouped according to attainment or achievement rather than age. Outcomes could be established at different levels of schooling. If outcomes are not achieved, the child remains at that level until be ha.s learned what he needs to know. On the other hand, if he masters his lessons early, he can move on to the next level. This part of schooling would be similar to the French system. The United States system would involve taking a student through approximately twelve years of fulfilling designated outcomes at different levels. If this approach could be used throughout the educational system, the problem ncountered thus far with grouping could be avoided. Brighter students could accelerate through the levels while slower student could receive additional instruction time to learn the necessary skills. Slow and average students would receive the stimulus of having students who are brighter in the same classroom, but at the same time they can have the reassurance of moving at a comfortable pace that matches their ability and/or achievement. Perhaps the adults who are at odds over the issues of tracking and cooperative learning would be satisfied with this kind of compromise. Certainly, instruction would be improved for everybody. This program would also provide equal opportunities for all students to succeed at their levels of ability. The answers are not easy, and they are too diflicult to determine over night. The problem of grouping students will remain throughout this decade and into the next century. Teaching students and preparing them for an ever-changing world is a highly complex task. Solutions must be continuously evaluated. Education must meet the needs of a society that is constantly changing but that is reluctant to make drastic changes. Fot the time being the compromise that has just Slavin's review of regrouping in the elementary school for reading and/or mathematics reveals that five of seven studies in the best-evidence synthesis found that students learned more in regrouped than in heterogeneous classes. In one of the two studies that had negative results, students in regrouped classes failed to outperform those in heterogeneous classes, but no attempt was made to provide differentiated materials for the students (Ibid), If educators are not aware of such inadequacies of educational design, they are apt to draw erroneous conclusions. Educators must also be aware of misrepresentations of the findings. Popular media distorted Slavin’s findings. They failed to take note of Slavin's important distinction between types of grouping. They described his research as having determined that grouping is academically harmful. This is not the case (Ibid. 62). Without question, educational decisions must stand upon a firm research base and uptxi accurate interpretation of the research. The original research must be examined in place of accepting selective and biased summations that often appear in the media. Some researchers have looked beyond the studies that have been conducted in the United States. They see benefits in examining grouping jMactices in other countries. When they examined the grouping policies in Germany, Japan, and France, they discovered that these countries do not track young children, but when the children turn fifteen, they are channeled into specialized high schools. At this point, students are tracked. One of the systems deserves a closer look. France has a different approach toward teaching elementary children. While they do not strictly group or track these students, they do use flexible pacing and advancement. Young smdents are paced through three learning cycles. Students who do not master the skills at the end of a cycle are retained. Faster students who complete objectives early begin work on material in the next cycle but they remain in the same class. Teachers can group according to 29 �been discussed would be worth trying. Regardless of the solution, teachers would do well during this period of educational change to adopt the philosophy of Valorie Cramer, an English teacher in Lee's Summit, Missouri. "We must learn to live with the system in which we work and try to develop methods for giving our students the best of ourselves without labeling students" (Cramer, 78). Allan, Susan Demirsky. “Ability-Grouping Research Reviews: What Do They Say About Grouping and the Gifted* Educational Leadership. 42. 2 (March 1991): 60-65. Cramer, Valorie. "Low-Ability Classes in King Arthur’s Court: Once More Around the Tracking." English Journal. 81. 6 (October 1992); 77-78. Feldhusen, John F. and Sidney M. Moon. "Grouping Gifted Students: Issues and Concerns." Gifted Child Quarterly. 36. 2 (Spring 1992): 63-67. Follain, Mary. “Repeatedly Humiliate." The Times Educational Supplement. 3. (January 10,1992): 11. Kulik, James and Chen-Lin O. Kulik. “Meta-analytic Findings on Grouping Programs." Gifted Child Quarterly. 36. 2 (Spring 1992): 73-77. O'Neil, John. "On Tracking and Individual DilTerences: A Conversation with Jeannie Oakes." Educational Leadership. SO. 2 (October 1 992): 1 8-21. Slavin, Robert E. "Are Cooperative Learning and 'Untracking' Harmful to the Gifted? "‘Educational Leadership. 42.2 (March 1991): 68-71. Van Tassel-Baska, Joyce. "Educational Decision Making on Accelerations and Grouping." Gifted Child Quarterly. 36. 2 (Spring 1992): 68-71. 30 �Feminine Frustration: The Poetry of Christina Rossetti By Bernice Strand Course: Independent Study in Literature Instructor: Dr. Helon Raines Assignment: Choose several writings of one author or several authors and write an essay in which you rpovide some broader context for your thesis than analysis or explication of the work. Your primary audience will be undergraduate English and humanities majors who receive the literary journal. As a poet, Christina Rossetti is a craftswoman for her ability to meld two seemingly opposite ends of human nature into an integrated commentary on life. According to the biography in The Norton Anthology of English Literature, Rossetti's poetry combines joyful delight in sensual pleasures with sterner, pious strivings of the soul (Abrams 1502). Rather than verifying this interpretation of the poet's work, a close examination of several of her compositions shows a subtext of frustration and sarcasm toward the popular Victorian view of women. The "good Christian woman" role to which Rossetti resigned herself after her father's wealth diminished (Abrams 1501), rather than being a moral choice of free-will, may have been the action of a practical young woman who recognized the social limitations within which she would have to live. Textual evidence supports the view that Rossetti was not only a contemplator of temptation and self-denial, but was also an independent, unconventicxial woman living in an age when those qualities were undesireable. Forced to wear the facade of a sober gentlewoman, Christina Rossetti rebelled against religious manacles and raged over the injustice of her lot in life through her writings. The first evidence of the separation Rossetti felt 31 �piece describes the artist's model as "A saint, an angel," but then goes on to say that the artist­ nineteenth century man-paints the woman with "The same one meaning .... Not as she is, but as she fills his dream." The real person, she tells the reader, is "hidden just behind those screens" (Rossetti 1505). According to the men of Rossetti’s time, the perfect woman was a beautiful, mindless, twodimensional image on an artist’s canvas. But Rossetti presents the reader with a three dimeniional woman in "In An Artist's Studio." She tells the reader that this woman is alive, with eyes that are "wan with waiting" and "with sorrow dim" (Rossetti 1505). Rossetti's model is an analogy to herself. She, like the model, was presented as a beautiful, dressed-up, pure image that the world wished to see, not as the hopeless and sad, but extraordinary woman she was. A Victorian woman was not free to move in the direction she wished according to Rossetti. To fit in with the rest of the "models," she "sits or walks or leans" just as all other women who were "posed" by the men (Rossetti 1505). The strongest argument against Abrams' interpretation of Rossetti’s personality is supported by the poem "Dead Before Death" (Rossetti 1504). Beginning with the title, the reader instantly understands that some aspect of the persona will die, while the body continues to exist. After close inspection, it becomes clear that what has died is the spirit of the persona. In "Dead Before Death," Rossetti describes the sad realization that she has "Grown rigid in the sham of lifelong lies" (Rossetti 1504). These are not the words of a pious woman who has drawn peace and fulfillment from dogmatic religion. The contention that she was satisfied with her lot in life is shattered by the first line when she says that she was "changed and very cold/Wilh stiffened smiling lips and cold calm eyes," and again when she says she had "hoped for belter things as years would rise" (Rossetti 1504). This poem is depressing, and the persona is angry. Rossetti describes her dismay that life is nearly over and her realization that she has not accomplished anything truly important. She laments that for all her intelligence, she is "little wise" (Rossetti 1504), from her inner nature is taken from the first "Song" in The Norton Anthology of English Literature (Rossetti 1502). The persona describes "she" in the first stanza as someone who sings in the sun and delights in watching fish frotick. "1" in the second stanza is crying and depressed, and watches the flowers die. The third stanza brings the two identities together by contrasting the sad memories of the narraux and the hopes of "she," and by comparing the narrator's tears and the other woman's songs as both being in vain. In stanza one, the poem exudes energy and joy, while in stanza two the mood is depressive and hints of early death, "the blossoms of the May weep leaves, . . (Rossetti 1502). This metaphor likens the persona to a flower that is withering before its time. Contrasts between light and dark represent enlightenment and ignorance. The first woman in the poem is free to experience what delights her under "the glad sunbeam" of enlightenment, while the woman living amid ignorance exists "beneath the moon's most shadowy beam" (Rossetti 1502). The most powerful evidence of the connection between the persona aird the other woman in "Songs" is in the last stanza. The persona "wept for memory" of the other woman's "hope that is so fair," but in the end realized that no one would recognize her unhappiness over having to suppress the joyful person she once was, just as no one would recognize her right to be that care-free unrestrained spirit: "My tears were swallowed by the sea; Her songs died on the air" (Rossetti 1503). The image brought to mind by Rossetti's choice of the word "sea" is the sea of humanity. One is compelled to recognize the significance of this word, since it is not homogeneous with the earlier stanza that describes the persona as sitting next to a stream rather than the ocean. Ultimately, the futility of the persona’s desire to be reconciled with the other woman in the poem is expressed in the last line of "Songs" when Rossetti sues the word "air" to imply that society viewed the Victorian woman's desire for independence or fulfillment as without substance. The image of Rossetti as a different person than the one she presented to the world is verified by the poem "In An Artist's Studio." The persona in this 32 �others in "Sleeping at Last." With death, "the trouble and tumuli (will be| over. . . and the struggle and horror piust ... out of sight of friend and of lover." No longer would she suffer from "a tired heart downcast or overcast" (Rosselli 1523). The editors of The Norton Anthology of English Literature purport that Christina Rosselli was a m<xkl of Victorian womanly values, but one could more accurately describe her as a woman who, while not openly arguing for the rights of women, certainly endured the inequitable irealmenl of women in the eighteen hundreds, and expressed her frustration through her poetry. The significant differences between the person she was inside and the person she showed to the world are the qualities that give her poetry the whiplash effect heretofore accredited to her dichotomous nature. Upon close examination, evidence abounds that Christina Rossetti was a woman whose zest for free expression was barely kept in respectable check in the face of a stKiety that discouraged free-thinking, independent women. The strain of a lifetime of self-denial tried her patience, and the poetry of Rossetti is evidence of the tormented mind that results form renouncing one's own values and spirit. because history has determined that those who conform will not produce change. One can feel her anguish over wasting her life by trying to change into something she was not. The last five lines best express her despondency: All lost the present and the future lime. All lost, all lost, the lapse that went before: So lost till death shul-lo the opened door, So lost from chime to everlasting chime, So cold and lost for ever evermore. (Rossetti 1504) Rossetti valued spontaneity. She bewailed that loss when she admitted that her outer presence was a frozen expression and her feelings were numbed after years of ftxcing herself to be something she was not. Dejected, she admitted that she had "Grown hard and stubborn in the ancient mould" (Rosselli 1504). Although the selections used to illustrate the position of this essay were written in 1862, Rossetti’s frustration was a common subtext in poems written throughout her life. In "From Later Life" written in 1881, she penned, "I am sick of where I am and where I am not, I am sick of foresight and of memory, I am sick of all I have and all I see, 1 am sick of self (Rosselli 1522). Again in 1893, she wrote about her desire to escape the world and the need to please Work Cited Abrams, M. H. el al. TAe Norton Anthology of English Ijterature. 5lh ed. New York: Norton, 1986. All poems died are from Ltiis edition. 33 �Crazy Horse The Legend That Will Not Die By David Carrick Course: Native American Literature Instructor: Jacqueline Valdez Assignment; This poem grew out of the assignment to write a research paper on a topic of interest to the student discovered in that student's study of Native American literature. (The author wishes to express his sincere thanks to Mr. Joseph Marshall, Sicangu Lakota and coauthor of Soldiers Falling into Camp, for his time and encouragement, and to Mrs. Margaret Moris for her editorial assistance.) 34 �Conestoga wagons rolled westwardly across desolate prairies in pursuit of the setting sun. The dawning of a new era was unfolding rapidlythe exodus from the east converging on the *Lakola Nation. Cavalrymen continued to arrive a Fort Laramie, sabers rattling ominously with the horses' rhythmic gait. Eagle wing fans swished angrily from where the old chiefs gathered, pondering their people's fate. The wagon trains resembled giant snakes slithering across the precious Lakota land. Leaving death and destruction in their dusty wakes, as only the uncaring and ignorant can. Buffalo, bloated beneath the glare of the sun and circling hawks, shot ;md left to rot where they lay. Diseases like cholera and smallpox brought deplorable misery to the Indian way. The arrogant Lieutenant Grattan came for the Miniconju man. Straight Foretop, one hapless day. He'd killed a Mormon's cow that could barely stand. The apologetic Indians offered to repay. Angrily the inexperienced Grattan gave the order to commence firing, and the friendly chief. Conquering Bear, went down. In moments, over thirty soldiers lay dead and dying, their blood soaked in the ground. Memories of good relations were but a glimmer; white and Indian alike wondered if the peace would last Tempers of the young warriors were hot as heat shimmers threading their way between wooden spokes as the wagons passed. A handsome young Lakota named Curly, turned warily at the evening bugles’ poignant blast. As a feeling of dread swept over him suddenly, within the crooked shadows the half-eaten moon h(id cast. The Indians left quickly for the *Running Waler River, their hearts full of grief, as Curly became more withdrawn. Sorrowfully he watched as the spirit of the beloved Bear Chief look wing with the first rays of dawn. Seeking a vision in the siorm-shrouded hills. Curly stared steadily through the relentless rain For three agonizing days, enduring chills, his ♦Vision Quest in vain. Curly was noticeably different even as a youth, quiet and shy, often alone - aloof. With light brown hair and fair skin he appeared nearly white. Immigrants along the ♦Holy Road occasionally stared at him, thinking the young Indian an unusual sight. Curly was the son of Crazy Horse, an *Oglala Holyman. his mother, the sister of Spotted Tail of the Sicangu band. No longer able to stay awake, Curly experienced a sensational dream. That of a mounted warrior, rising from a misty lake, riding ghost-like, powerful, yet serene. He wore a faded buckskin shirt, and leggings with flowing lace. An eagle feather fluuered in his long brown hair. Lightning bolls streaked brightly across his chiseled face. Hailstones and thunder power were brought to bear. Occasionally some whiles asked Curly if he was a captive, to which he angrily answered, "No!" He was Lakota, with no white relative. Proudly, he let them know. Moving silenUy in the morning light through the cottonwoods near the tranquil ♦Shell, Curly watched suspiciously the onslaught of whites, their wagons struggling awkwardly up a hill. This mystic warrior was a gallant leader who never fell as bullets and arrows harmlessly passed him by. 35 �Crazy Horse and a few warriors acted as decoys white the rest of the braves waited beneath a ridge. The Indians' once warm-hearted soldier friend led the excited cavalry columns. And although Red Cloud attempted to warn him, a Cheyenne killed the congenial Captain Collins. No enemy could slay him, though many of them he would kill. Only his own people could cause him to die. l ied in his hair was a sacred stone and a redbacked hawk, which glared menacingly as he sprinkled gopher dust on himself and his horse, Now invisible to his enemies, which he killed with no remorse. At the Little Powder Council Crazy Horse was made a Shirt-wearer at the ceremonial fire. ITiis award represented one of the greatest honors to which a warrior could aspire. He received special praise for his concern for everyone; he gave freely to all in need. Now, Man Afraid, American Horse, Sword and The Strange One must unselfishly accept the lead. Confident with his vision, its knowledge and spiritual source. Curly became one of the greatest fighters ever known. His father gave him his own name. Crazy Horse, taking the name. Worm, as his own. Now Curly was Tasunke Witko, the charging mystic horse, the man with the sacred stone, this strange one. But to his enemies he became the powerful Crazy Horse that could be killed by no man's bow or gun. One day near Fort Phil Kearny in a biting cold first light, a detachment of wood cutters ventured out. They'd been warned to remain in sight for fear hosliles might be moving about. Crazy Horse and a few decoys attacked from a wooded glen, as the startled detail fired an urgent alarm. Soldiers from the fort charged swiftly after them. Surely, they thought, it would do no harm. Crazy Horse fought with a vengeance all his own. Against those who encroached on sacred Lakota land, from the Shell to the *Shining Mountains, the *Paha Sapa to the Yellowstone, he made his determined stand. Still, the soldiers came with their worthless treaties, outstretched hands and vicious lies. Indian people were subjected to terrible atrocities; soldiers' hearts hardened to children's cries. Fellerman and his troops rode over Lodge Trail Ridge and quickly dropped out of sight As Oglalas, Cheyennes and Miniconjus attacked mercilessly, defeating the soldiers in a terrific fight, Fetlerman had boasted that with eighty men he could advance undaunted through the entire Sioux Nation. By nightfall he'd fell the thrust of a Lakota lance as he and eighty men died in terrified desperation. At the Blue Water, Crazy Horse could not believe his eyes - the terrible carnage where Little Thunder's camp used to be. Sicangu families hacked to death stared vacantly at ashen skies as Tasunke Witko slumped weakly to his knees. Unborn babies lay in the dirt, savagely cut from mothers' bellies, beaded dresses harshly yanked over terrorized faces. These beautiful Lakota people now lay grotesquely, many scalped in unspeakable places. Crazy Horse lost many friends and relatives in the violent battles which ensued Conquering Bear, Yellow Woman, Lone Bear, Little Hawk and Hump, casualties of this biller feud. Ihe Cheyenne and Lakota fought the blue-coated soldier boys near the Shell north of the *wagon bridge. 36 �falling into camp, upside down and dead. Lakota *Sun Dance drums echoed far into the starry night to where Crazy Horse stood alone, bathed by winds of destiny. The Sacred Hoop was broken as the Lakota prepared to fighL Smoke from the red willow bark spiraled upwards towards eternity, Lifting prayers to *Wakan Tanka in the silvery light Tasunke Wilko had never known such grief, so many people gone lhal he once cherished. Becoming more desperate this humble chief mounted all his loved ones that had perished. He Dog brought Black Shawl to the Strange One, where he lived apart. His friends hoped he'd take her for bis wife. Tasunke Witko said she was welcome, but within his heart there was no longer life. Crazy Horse became the father of a delicate *daughter whom he grew to love and adore, But she also died from a white man's sickness and Crazy Horse grieved, forevermore. From *Ash Creek near the Greasy Grass, or Little Big Hom, seven hundred and fifty determined fighters rode Attacking ♦I’hrcc Stars and his troops, weary and forlorn in their hot uniforms, garnished with braids of gold. A hail storm of lead bombarded the painted warriors from the carbines' deafening roar As the Indians charged, and charged some more, with Crazy Horse guiding the courageous war. Crazy Horse embraced the tiny bundle now lifeless and cold, a beaded deerskin doll clutched tenderly in his hand. Thunderbirds spoke loudly as murky clouds engulfed the scaffold. Lightning flashed a pale glow upon the majestic Lakota land. The Strange One rode silently away, a fiery hatred scorching his soul that bis people had never seen before. Miners now died more frequently in their hysterical goal of plundering the sacred Paha Sapa for its elusive yellow ore. Black Moon, Bad Heart Bull and Little Wound fought bravely at the Strange One's side. As mortified soldiers plunged awkwardly to the ground, grassy slopes caressing them gently as they died. Three Stars and his survivors fell back towards Goose Creek with triumphant braves stalking them like frightened antelope. lliere was no safe haven for the soldiers to seek the base camp near the Goose, their only hope. At Chalk Buttes a multitude of angry warriors arrived at the huge encampment of the powerful Sitting Bull. Here Crazy Horse was chosen War Chief for life; all the warfare be now would rule. Famous chiefs attended - Gall, Black Elk, Lame Deer, Lone Bear, He Dog and Crow King, of the Hunkpapas. Spotted Eagle, Touch the Clouds, Two Moons, Fast Bull, Old Bear, Black Moon and Big Road, of the Oglalas. Shortly after the battle of the Rosebud lagged. Sitting Bull's splendid vision came true. For off in the distance, beneath a forked-tailed flag galloped Major Reno's dusty troops of blue. Crazy Horse, Big Road and Gall proceeded quickly leading the Cheyennes and Lakotas relentlessly into the fray. At the river some old waniors and young boys fought gallantly, bolding many apprehensive soldiers at bay. It was the twilight if the Sioux, in the valley of the Rosebud at the Deer Medicine Rocks, in the ♦Moon When Ponies Shed That Sitting Bull, within the circle of dancers, sacrificed his blood for a vision of soldiers White Feather Tail, Bear and Good Weasel fired anows into the eerie light as Gall and bis fierce fighters swept along the upper slope. 37 �The soldiers' rifle fire seemed harmless against warriors so eager to fight. The barrage of arrows presented troops an elusive hope. Bluecoats tumbled, broke and bloody, from sweat-stained saddles. Wounded horses screamed from pain and fright. Never had the Long-Knives seen Indians fight such battles, and never had they witnessed a more dreadful sight. slopes high above the Greasy Grass. For over one hundred years they've retold the story - perhaps for another hundred it will last Of the great Lakota and Cheyenne victories with all their glory, the romantic characters that destiny cast. The indomitable spirit of Crazy Horse intrigues us all, as the Strange One rides mysteriously from out of the past. Swiftly, Crazy Horse and his men rode downstream to intercept the Seventh Cavalry, led by the infamous Custer. Soldiers balked as courageous Indians charged with a scream. Horses bolted beneath men summoning what courage they could muster. Custer and his terrified troops retreated to the crest of a hill, bracing quickly for certain defeat Braves crept silently through the tall grass, closing for the kill as Crazy Horse and Gall cut off any chance of retreat. * Lakota, one of the three divisions of Sioux, meaning ’’Allies." The other two are the Nakota and Dakota. * Holy Road, Indian name for the Oregon Trail. * Oglala and the Sicangu were two of the seven tribes of the Lakota. The other five were the Hunkpapa, the Itazipacola, the Miniconju, the Sihasapa, and the Oohenunpa. * Shell River, North Platte River. * Running Water River, Niobrara River. * Vision Quest consisted of prayer and fasting for a period of days. * Shining Mountains, Big Hom Mountains of Wyoming. * Paha Sapa, the Black Hills of South Dakota. * Wagon Bridge, Fort Caspar. * Daughter of Crazy Horse, called "They were Afraid of Her." * Moon when Ponies Shed, May. * Sun Dance (Wiwanyang Wacipi), yearly dance of renewal. * Wakan Tanka, God or the Great Mystery. * Ash Creek, now known as Reno Creek. * Three Stars, name Indians gave General Crook. These murderous soldiers, with their deadly wagon guns, who bad wrought havoc and miseiy across Indian land. Now gathered hopelessly like a covey of frightened qu^l, high above the Greasy Grass, in a desperate stand. Soon horses and soldiers lay scattered across their ragged trail. Mute guns still smoking, held in each lifeless hand, as wave after wave of victorious warriors counted coup on each unfortunate, fallen man. Crazy Horse and Custer rode resolutely into the annals of history that fateful day on the sunny Bibliography Kammen, Robert, Lefthand, Frederick and Marsha]], Joseph. Soldiers Falling Into Camp, Encampment, Wy.: Affiliated Writers of America,lDC., 1992. Moeller, Bill and Jan. Cra^ Horse: His Life and His Lands, Wilsonville, Oegon: Beautiful America PuUishing Co., 1987. Neihardt, John G., Black Bk Speaks, University of Nebraska Press.Lincoln and London. 1932. Sandoz, Mail, Crazy Horse: The Strange Man of the Oglalas, University of Nebraska Press. Lincoln and London, 1942. 38 �For Where Your Treasure Is By Carol Castlen Course: Ethics in Practice Instructor: Dr. Robert Carlson Assignment: After reading a narration concerning Oliverotto of Fenuo, the student was to write an essay to convince Oliverotto that justice is the habit of giving someone his due (right); that Oliverotto ought to practice justice willingly; and that justice will lead to happiness. The student was to use several specified terms from the course. Since the advent of human thought, mankind has sought explanation for the motivations underlying human behavior. As each generation is bom, lives, and then dies, the perpetual struggle for understanding becomes its burden and its challenge. In this present age, there is a great fragmentation of thought on this subject. Psychology, biology, sociology, anthropology, archaeology, and even astrology all propose their distinct theories and explanations for human actions, desires, and well-being. While each may have its valid points, together they have become an exalted mountain of relativity on which people climb in search of happiness. Independent and oblivious to the climbers and their endless litany of argumentation and debate, a string of truth lies at the base of the mountain. Socrates found it, as have others who have endeavored to dig beneath the surface. Many scholars today are among the climbers who yell at regular intervals, "Nothing is absolute! There is no justice! Truth changes from age to age and person to person!" These are mere echoes of a voice that bellowed at Socrates in Plato's Republic "...I say the just is to do what is for the advantage of the stronger!" Might makes right. He who has the gold makes the rules. Thrasymachus' spirit is alive and well, not to mention pervasive, in the twentieth century. The doctrine of moral relativity and the fear or blind 39 �Temperance, Prudence, Courage and Justice become mere annoying trifles on the way to the top. All these virtues are necessary in the balanced human soul. The temperate person controls his desire for gratification, rather than the desire controlling him. The prudent person humbles herself before the wise and applies wisdom to her life. The courageous person moves forth in the face of fear. The just person has the habit of giving each with whom he deals what is rightfully due. The cardinal virtues are the moral habits which ought to guide one's choices. One who abandoned virtue and listened to Thrasymachus as he climbed was a man named Oliverotlo. An orphan who was raised by his uncle Giovanni Fogliani, he eventually became a skilled warrior. Then he heard the deceiving calls of power and pride and decided that he did not need to be anyone’s subject Pride will not allow the humility of prudence, nor the self-control of temperance, while it distorts the essence of courage and tries to bury justice. Thus controlled by pride, Oliverotlo devised a scheme to deceive his uncle and the city of Fermo's leaders, and then maliciously murder them. He went on to rule over Fermo by sheer terror. He became the king of the relativistic mountain, and as in the children's game, he was himself toppled a year later when he was murdered. Oliverotlo, like many people today, failed to grasp the true definition of justice. Justice is not created by any individual. It exists in the interaction between two parties, be they individuals or groups. Each party has a debt, which they owe to the other, and a right, which they are owed by the other. Justice is achieved when there is balance and equality in the interaction. Simply because one party does not give the other what is due to her does not mean that justice does not exist The potential for justice is in every human interaction. The impartial balance can be achieved, though it is often missed. Justice is absolute; it exists whether or not one is aware of it. It cannot be altered by time, location, opinion, or the vote. Oliverotlo could not disguise worship of those in power is not new. Il takes effort to extricate the strand of truth amid the continuous and insistent presentation of the relativistic position. For those not easily distracted by the noisy mountain, the art of philosophy can lead to clear and logical answers to perplexing questions: What is justice? What is the nature of humans? What will lead to true happiness? By following the gentle beckoning finger of Socrates, and continuing on to the calmly certain writings of Mortimer Adler, one can begin to sift through the rubble to grasp a simple yet awesomely powerful truth. Despite various theories, the human is iiMleed a distinct creature with a unique nature. This nature differs in kind from any other living thing on Earth. Within human nature is mind or soul, and within the soul are the three powers of reason, desire, and emotion. The power of reason can be further divided into the powers of intellect and will, which comprise the greatest difference between the human and other animals. Horses and ostriches and dolphins are not capable of reading the words on this page, much less comprehending them. Furthermore, humans can use this power of intellect to make individual choices, which is the power of will. Animals are guided by instinct and the desire to survive, which they are not conscious of having. One of the results of having this human nature is the desire to attain an end known as happiness. The desire to be happy is natural for the sane human mind; no one goes about in a constant effort to make one's self miserable. The problem arises in the means which are used to attain happiness, as well as not knowing what happiness actually is. The climbers scale ever higher, seeking the "end" of happiness in the "means" of fame, wealth, power, prestige or any of an infinite number of desirable objects or qualities. To acquire these supposed peaks of happiness, many assume the altitude of "anything goes’" Choices are made which often defy virtuous human behavior. The four cardinal virtues of 40 �proper amount, and the apparent goods in so fer as they do not impede the acquisition of the real goods. The keys to happiness lie within the power of the human soul. With knowledge and awareness and the power to choose, one can pursue happiness where it exists. Socrates found the strand in the rubble and called it Justice. In the Republic he artfully wove a comparison between his hypothetical state and the human soul. The workers, guardians, and rulers of the State are analogous to the emotion, desire, and reason of the human soul. "This then, 1 said, my friend, if taken in a certain sense appears to be justice, this principle of doing one's own business." Each part of the whole performs its right function. Justice is the strand which runs through the pearls, which are the real goods. To hold this string is to grasp ha[^iness. Instead of the ever-changing legalistic laws that humankind creates and then changes, the objective and natural rights all human possess are absolute. The right to pursue happiness where it truly exists is a natural right It is also a duty which requires conscious decision and action. To do so is to risk going against the formidable power of the moral relativists' position, but without this string of pearls, the real goods of human life, individuals and societies will fall into a state of disharmony and anarchy. The mountain of relativity, screaming loudly from televisions, books, and multiple incarnations of Thrasymachus will probably not disappear any time soon. But some, as they watch incredulously while thousands scramble about on it, know where happiness really lies. Some dig beside Socrates in the search for it, some reach through the dirt and smile as they touch it, and some never let go. bis greed, pride, and savagery by calling them justice. If power, wealth, and prestige are not the ultimate "end" which is happiness, then what is? Why be virtuous? Why cultivate the habit of treating people justly? To answer these questions is to come down off Mount Relativity and again dig for the truth. It is also to admit to possessing the power of free will and choice. The human alone is subject to the concept of "ought" and "ought not." Mortimer Adler in his book Six Great Ideas, asserts that, "Man ought to desire that which is really good." Those things which are really good are the goods which a person desires in accordance with his nature. Real goods include needs, such as food, air, and shelter; they also include those qualities such as knowledge, love, and the cardinal virtues which enable one to live well and come closer to reaching the end goal of happiness. Distinct from real goods, but desirable nonethe-less, are the apparent goods. These are seen as good because they are desired. Real goods are desired because they are good. Real goods are universal and apply to all humans everywhere; apparent goods are particular and based upon individual choices and preferences. Mr. Adler’s observation that one ought to desire that which is really good is self-evident in that it is not logical to need that which is bad, nor to desire that which is not desirable. The quest for apparent goods may impede the possession of real goods; thus only with the real goods of wisdom and self-control ought one decide on which apparent goods to pursue. At this point, the definition of happiness becomes clear. It is the ultimate and final end which cannot be used as a means to anything else. It is the possession of all the real goods, in their 41 �c Risk Factors that Influence Success in School By Cameo Olsen Course: Foundations of Learning Instructor: Dr. Ruth Doyle Assignment: This class project is applied research based on one of the seven designs taught in educational psychology. This applied research is causal comparative, an ex post facto design, assessing students' academic success or lack of it due to "at risk" factors. ABSTRACT The researcher has taken fifty students from the Middle School who received the highest number of student referrals for behavior and discipline. Tbe research showed a comparison between risk factors that could {dace a student al risk for school failure. The results show that tins particular group of students had a high percentage of common risk factors and that tbe students living in single or non-traditional families were al greater risks. While this in itself is not significant and will not cause difficulties in school, when comldned with other risk factors, it is cause for concern. 42 �I. Introduction Operational Definitions The research evaluates fifty middle school students and compares a variety of risks factors that can influence success in the school environment. Student Referrals - The number of times a student has been removed from the classroom and sent to lime out for any type of disciplinary measure. Household Status - Refers to the organization of the family regarding parental supervision. A) Traditional (T) - Both natural parents present in home. B) Non-Traditional (NT) - One natural parent and a step-parent or significant other. C) Single (S) - One parent present in home. Problem Statment The study of the research was to evaluate fifty students to determine if home environment and other risk factors show any significant relationship to success in school. Rationale Research has shown that certain environmental factors can place a student at risk of school failure. Il is true that one risk factor by itself will not place a student at risk; however, if a combination of risk factors are seen relating to a student, it should be cause for concern. The National Center of Education Statistics (1) has found that living in a single parent home and poverty are two factors that can place a student al risk of school failure. Chemical Abuse - Dependant or addictive use of any alcohol, illegal drugs or prescriptive drugs. Addicted - Physiological dependency on a harmful habit-forming substance. School Nutrition Program - The National School Lunch Program, School Breakfast Program, special Milk Program, and Commodity School Program. Null Hypothesis 1. Categorical Eligibility - A child from a household currently certified to receive food stamps or from an Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) assistance unit is categorically eligible for free benefits. 2. Income Eligibility -- A child from a household that submits a complete application and the sum of the reported income for the household is at or below the income eligibility (lEGs) is eligible for either free or reduced price benefits. There is nothing of significance that would relate students’ home environment and other risk factors to lack of success in school. Limitations 1. Selection bias - No random selection. The selection of the students was based on the number of referrals to lime out or in-school suspension. Students with the highest number of refenals were selected. 2. Researcher not able to obtain accurate factual information in each category. 3. Instrumentation 4. Unknown changes in the student's home environment 5. Unknown knowledge of other outside influences,i.e. medication, problems with the law. 6. Access to desired information. Grade Point Average (GPA) - Combined average grades for all classes. Student Identification Number (ID#) Confidentiality requires that each student be given an identification number. Alternate Child Care - Temporary or permanent removal of a student from the family home with placement by DPASS, a law enforcement agency. 43 �lhe courts or other appropriate agency. Appropriate facilities to include single parent families. Forty percent from single parent families and twenty eight percent from nontraditional families. Thirty percent of the students were raised in traditional families with both of the natural parents present Of the students studied forty two percent lived with some form of substance abuse. Twenty two percent came from single parent families and sixteen percent came from non-traditional families. Only four lived in a traditional family environment. Fifty two percent of the study group participated in the School Nutrition Program,receiving either free or reduced breakfast or lunches. Again the greater percentages came from lhe single and nontraditional families. Twenty six percent from single parent and sixteen percent frcmi non-traditional. The lower percentage again was in the traditional family with only ten of the students participating in School Nutriticwi Program. The study included seven students or fourteen percent in alternative care. Of these seven students, six were participating in lhe School Nutrition Program and three students came from a home with some form of substance abuse. The number of limes a student had moved and lhe number of absences did not affect lhe outcome of the research for the majority of lhe students. The overall absences ranged from zero days to fifty four and half days per year and is not specific to one type of household structure. The students who moved or dropped during or at the end of the school year have been significantly affected by this and other moves. Although moving is not by itself a risk factor, seven of the eight students had moved a significant number of times during the student's school years. Of the eight students or sixteen percent, only one student had remained in one school during their education. The remaining had moved five or more times between kindergarten and middle school. During the number of moves lhe schools were unable to obtain accurate records of the transfers and a number of the elementary school records have been lost. Student #30 had moved three times during middle school and her elementary records were unavailable. 1. Foster Care - placement of a child in a home other than his own. 2. Group Home Placement - placement of a child in the county agency known as the group home. Hacement to be from thirty days to one year. 3. Crisis Center - placement of a child in a county agency for up to thirty days. IL Method Subjects were selected through the use of discipline records kept by the Middle School. Fifty students with the highest number of student referrals were selected as subjects for the research. Research instrumentation included a chart which was completed as applicable information was gathered. The initial chart included student names to allow for appropriate placement of data. For the purpose of confidentiality, as each section was completed it was covered or sealed as to not prejudice the next participating agency. At the end of the research lhe names of the students were removed, leaving only the identification numbers. Data regarding grade point average, the number of absences, household slatus,retention, and lhe number of times a student had moved were ccanpiled from each individual student cumulative file. Data for lhe School Nutrition Program was gathered from appropriate files at the Middle School office. Information regarding alternate child care and substance abuse was determined through an interview with the Middle School guidance counsellor. Information was requested from DPASS but was denied due to confidentiality. III. Results Research results indicate that sixty eight percent of the students studied came from non-traditional or 44 �household status, with non-traditional and single family being a risk factor. Substance abuse, alternative care, having attended five or more schools, fifteen or more absences. School Nutrition Program (relating to low income), lack of interest cw support for the student and their school environment as noted with parent/teacher conferences, and retention in second grade or above. Data indicates that the number of risk factors was higher in single parent and non-traditional families. Students in traditional families had no more than three risk factors while students with four or more risk factors lived in single parent or non-traditional families. The most common risk factor to all of the students regardless of household status was lack of parental participation in the student's interest at school. The number of student referrals and the low GPA for all the students would indicate some academic and behavioral difficulties that needed to be addressed. After evaluating the research for the causal comparative research design,ii is necessary to reject the null hypothesis. Students #11, #20, #23, and #13 had each moved enough times that the school district was unable to obtain all records from the elementary school years. The number of absences for these students range frcMn six to fifty four and a half days per year. Note also that for this particular group of students six of the eight students lived within a home with known substance abuse and none of the parents attended either fall or spring parent teacher conferences. Although GPA could not be attributed to a specific household structure, it is clear that parental support and involvement or lack of involvement has an affect on the student's perfonnance and behavior in school. Only twelve percent of the parents of students in the study came to parent/teacher conferences of their own volition. Fifty four did not come at all and thirty four came only after the teaching teams had sent a letter home specifically requesting them to attend the conference and gave an appointed time. Even with the request two sets of parents did not attend conferences. The average GPA for the students in the study was 1,09. IV. Conclusions Summary and Recommendations GPA scores range frwn .0 to 1.0 - 12% 1.1 to 2.0 -46% 2.1 to 3.0 - 36% 3.1 to 4.0 - 6% The research indicates that environmental factors at home can have an influence on a student's success at school. While one risk factor is not cause for concern,a ctxnbination of risk factors should be considered. Both environment and parent involvement are important factors for success in school. Income (referring to SNP) are also important indicators that can flag a student for intervention by school officials. Even in the six percent whose GPA was 3.1 or above, no student has received higher than 3.13. According to the National Center For Education Statistics, The Condition of Education 1991, poverty is one factor considered to place a student at risk of academic failure. (2). Single parent families are also considered to place a student at risk of school failure. (3) It is true that one risk factor will not place a student at risk for school failure, but a combination of risk factors is cause for concern. Across the board,students whose home environment was single parents cm* non-traditional had more risk factors then those students living in a traditional home. Risks factors considered were Recommendations - For further study of this group, the researcher would attempt to obtain information retlecting the parental advancement in school; high school diploma, GED trade school or college education. Medication taken by a particular student, outside counselling, individual alcohol and drug use were not considered in this study and would add still another facet to the outcome of the research. 45 �(1) U.S. Depan ment. <rf Education National Center for Education Statistics, The Condition of Eduction 1991. Volume 1. (2) U.S. Department of Education National Center for Education Statistics. The Condition of Education 1991, Volutite 1. (3) U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, X Pro^/e of/Ae American 46 Grader, 1990. �Fathers Who Tend Their Children From the 5O's to the 9O's By Sarah L, Peak Course: Child Development Instructor: June Winkel Assignment: Each student is asked to select a topic related to child development and develop a term paper based on library research. Findings are submitted to the instructor and also presented orally to classmates. In Dr. Spock’s Pocketbook of Childcare, published in 1951, the message conveyed to readers was that fathers needed to try to become "the warm father,” but still a type of father who was much less actively involved in child-rearing than today's "new father," the new breed of father, who today is becoming a culture in himself. Spock addressed mainly mothers on all aspects of parenting all ages of children. He told men of the fifties that the care of babies and children was not entirely the mother's responsibility. Dads could still be "real men" and "warm fathers" at the same time; that a father's closeness-friendliness was vital to bis children's psychological well-being in infancy, childhood, and throughout the rest of the child's life. Spock's advice to fathers seems to be very limited as to the quantity of time a man needs to spend with his children. He does, however, seem to believe that the quality of care, using a friendly and accepting manner, instead of criticism, is the best ap^M^oach to childcare-giving by fathers. I get the feeling that in the 195O's. Spock saw children as more of a hardship to be endured by fathers than a joy or an asset He did, however, hint at the possibility of children having some good points. 47 �Fathers should try to join in childcare right from the start, to learn with mothers and not to leave it all up the mothers in the first two years, because then the father would be reluctant to help later in life when he was really needed in all aspects of child-rearing. The mother might become the "expert" and the "boss” of the children. All in the same breath, Spock cautioned mothers not to force Dad, if he got "goose flesh" when faced with infant care, that he was Just "bashful" and just needed "encouragement" (Spock 15). I got the impression that Spock saw the Fifties father as an "occasional" caregiver, helping with childcare only once in a while. Dr. Spock spoke to fathers about caring for their boys, and for their girls, in very different ways. He did not give generalized advice as to the rearing of children. The segregation, by gender, was evident. He spoke of a man's relationship with his son in one page entitled "A Boy Needs a Friendly, Accepting Father." I think his viewpoint still reflected the "limited" time a father should spend with his son. Also, mostly masculine activities (i.e. sports) were the focus. According to Spock, a boy needs to be "near his father, do things with him (if possible), and be enjoyed by him." Spock offered that when a man comes home from work and wants to read the paper, he should try to understand the "valuable companionship" of his children, and make a "reasonable" effort (meaning, "Don't force yourself beyond the point of your endurance") to be with the children. He cautioned fathers that it was better to spend fifteen minutes of enjoyable time with the kids than to spend all day at the zoo, "crossly." He cautioned fathers not to be too anxious in regard to a son’s athletic abilities, not to criticize him, because he would feel "uncomfortable" inside. He advised men to give his son a "chip off the old block feeling." Spock's advice to men regarding their daughters was even more brief. The paragraph was entitled, "A Girl Needs a Friendly Father, Too." Men were told to give their girls approval, at all ages, because they would gain confidence as females from feeling his approval. He spoke of girls a.s enjoying a masculine figure; that a man’s relationship with his daughter would help ready her for a world "half made up of men," strongly influencing her friendships, loves, and later married life (Spock 243-244). In her book. Babies Need Fathers, Too, published in 1954, Rhoda Kellogg had some interesting thoughts on shifting the "parenting" load from mothers to fathers. Kellogg's views, maybe because she was a woman, seem to be more compatible with today's trend. She imagined the possibility of a father becoming more of the primary caregiver, or at least performing half of the caring role in this huge, overwhelming task of rearing the children. Kellogg notes that a mother can be defined with "biological accuracy," as a flesh and blood woman who has a baby and cares for it. It is this baby who makes her into the "good mother" or the "bad mother." This put the responsibility of parenting, naturally, on the mother. She believed it necessary to devise ways to prevent babies and their mothers from going through this process. The most important element being to "have fathers become important in the child's life from the moment of birth on." Then the label of "good parent/bad parent," or really "good and bad parent" could be used, not putting all of the "eggs in the mother's basket." Kellogg felt that what a baby needs is quality care from a capable adult. It needs "stable and affectionate, nurturing and understanding; loving cultivation by adults who respect its developing personality." Kellogg impressed upon readers that both the mother and father are capable of this quality care. Her belief was that fathers have never been given the opportunity to give loving care to their offspring; that it is possible that they never wanted to, but not probable; that maybe if mothers would give them the responsibility, and if society would give its approval to this show of loving care, they could do as well as mothers in fostering a "conscious" parent-child ideal relationship. This would change the old mother-child relationship and, by their mutual efforts, parents could establish a relationship of equality. Kellogg believed that "a 48 �man who can find in his heart the ability to love his own child enough to defy convention by giving his child his personal care...is helping bring about a much needed psychological revolution” (Kellogg 31-36). In his 1978 publication of The First Twelve Months of Life, Frank Caplan gave advice to fathers as far as their role as caretakers of their children is concerned. Caplan mentioned that "fathers usually rant about what all went wrong at home as soon as the mother comes in the door from the hospital." He wrote that doctors, hospitals, and the American culture as a whole won't let dads be a part of the pregnancy, birth and infancy of their children. Caplan advises mothers to let dad help, hold, feed, and bathe the child, even if he is fearful. This author believes that fathers behave in relationship to their baby's development of attachment to them. His viewpoint of how fathers should "father" is based on bis observations that attached babies with fathers who help care for them and, who play with them, and who are relatively patient about fussing, become attached early and intensely, smiling, vocalizing, and trying to come into physical contact with them. Fathers enhance their babies' independence by being interesting and desirable enough to break the "mother-baby duo” (Caplan 113). It seems that more and more as time goes on, the trend is towards fathers becoming more actively involved participants in the care of their children. In the January/February 1982 edition of Science Magazine, an article entitled "Newborn Knowledge," written by Richard M. Restak, notes that newborn babies pay special attention to their fathers, and vice-versa. He quotes renowned baby researcher, T. Berry Brazelton, Chief of the Child Development Unit of Children's Hospital Medical Center in Boston (who might be called the "Dr. Spock" of today) as saying "When several weeks old, an infant displays an entirely different attitude, more wide-eyed, playful, and brightfaced"towards its father than towards its mother." Brazelton describes baby's cycles with the father as "higher, deeper, and more jagged," corresponding to the father's "more playful, jazzed-up approach." One explanation for the infant's behavior, Brazelton says, is that fathers, on the whole behave as if they expect more heightened, playful responses from their babies" (Brazelton by Restak 60). This suppons the theory of Robert N. Emde, professor of psychology at the University of Colorado Medical School, that only now are we "beginning to appreciate bow much babies shape mothers-and fathers as well." Before, says Emde, "theorists only described bow mothers shaped babies" (Emde by Restak 65). What does this all mean in terms of bow today's father is going to "father" his children, from his occasionally participating in childcare (as in the past) to being an active, involved participant in his children's growing up on a day-to-day basis? As one author of the nineties, Maureen Weldon Fegan, puts it, "No genes are present making mothers more adept in caregiving than father's." Maybe, she suggests, mothers are only more "familiar" with this subject. She notes that today's fathers who are present from the very first for the birth of their babies, usually bond immediately and completely, even if the father is frightened al first. If fathers are active participants early on, they usually continue to participate willingly later (Fegan A17). Today, researchers agree that fathers play a much more important role in the nurturing of their children than was previously thought, echoing Kellogg (from the Fifties), and Caplan, Brazelton, and Emde (from the Seventies and Eighties). Kathleen Stassen Berger, in her "Research Report on Fathers and Infants," in The Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence, believes that fathers are just as capable of caring for their children as mothers are; that sensitivity to the child's needs is the key element. Fathers and infants show many differences in their interactions 49 �from the usual mother-infant interactions. Berger notes that “fathers’play is more physical and exciting; it is bigger and louder, incorporating the element of surprise into play” (Brazelion by Berger 214). It is apparent in the early months of life and shows up more pronounced later. Mothers' play is more "modulated and controlled" (Brazellon by Berger 214), facilitating more of a verbal interaction. Mothers are more likely to talk, sing, and combine play with their caretaking duties. They are more vigilant in observing their children’s play and usually will read, draw and play puzzles or blocks with their kids. Father­ infant researchers find that as infants grow older, fathers tend to increase the time spent with them, and tend to physically play more with them. Variations in the mothers' and fathers' caregiving styles show up more as the child gets older. Variations in caregiving by fathers, rather than mothers, and the differences in types of attentions, techniques, and tasks performed are beneficial to the children, as are the variations in responses from the children. We now know that children are capable of attaching to and forming close bonds with their fathers as well as with their mothers. Knowing how "good" these variations of caregivers and their different caregiving styles can be for their children and for themselves, more and more men are joining in the movement towards being more nurturing fathers. Many dads today in the Nineties seem to want to make themselves more available; interact emotionally and physically with their children; and take on responsibilities of parenting (i.e. making sitter arrangements; seeing that a sick child gets to the doctor; and making sure the kids have clean clothes to wear). Today’s fathers are trying to create a new "culture." When we look at their conduct, however, the actual carrying out of this new role is not as prevalent as expected. The very same society that is beginning to expect men to take over their children’s care hinders their efforts to do so. Society's underlying attitudes are just not helping men make the transition from passive to active father, at least not without a struggle. In his article, "The New Father," Parents Magazine, June 1991, Fjik Larson explains that today's fathers face barriers at every turn: In the workplace, a man's staunchest enemy is usually his boss. A boss looks at a man who wants to be involved in his children's care as "unambitious" regarding his job. -Men are met with "reverse chauvinistic" remarks from neighbors and friends (who eventually lose interest in their friendship). -Their own parents usually don’t accept them in their new role if their jobs become secondary to caring for the children. -Doctors see them as a go-between. If a father is the one who brings in a sick child, he will be able to relay the information to Mom later. -Even teachers treat fathers as if they aren't at least an equal half of the child-rearing couple. At parent-teacher conferences, they direct more questions to the mother and wait for her responses. -Mothers, as much as they seem to want to let fathers into their domain, to be involved and participate with the children, may unwillingly undermine their husbands' efforts to do so. They may not realize it, but they probably do not provide the opportunity to let their husbands be one-on-one with their kids. Then it becomes sort of a self-fulfilling prophecy. A mom can say "See, he is not involved!" Many mothers concentrate so hard on competent mothering that they leave no room for fathers to help. Many limes, fathers are left with the "dirty work" of parenting. -A man's expectations of himself may also get in the way of his willingness to become a responsible, nurturing childcare-giver. Perhaps he feels ambivalent about this because he was taught that he should be the breadwinner in the household. Men of our day don't have father role models to show them bow to incorporate this new kind of fathering into their lives. If a man is a breadwinner in the household, he may not be the only one these days, with more and more mothers 50 �working and making as much or more than their husbands. To help resolve this conflict, he may instead want to use his father as an example of "what not to do." Dads may also wonder if fathering (or parenting) is a worthwhile end in itself (as I’m sure many mothers do). Perhaps men arc reluctant to throw themselves into this role because they feel unprepared as far as knowledge of child development and basic parenting skills. They may also feel unprepared in the area of sensitivity to the child's needs. What they don't realize is that many new mothers also feel unprepared. -Many times fathers and mothers revert back to their old roles due to both social pressures and the "mutual collusion" of both parents (i.e. the unconscious arranging of things so that it is unlikely that fathers will get more involved (Larson 93). I believe that fathers today are much more capable, willing, and involved caregivers than Dr. Spock's father of the Fifties. Although it may be a struggle, perhaps they will overcome the cultural resistance which they face today in the Nineties. For this to become a reality in the future, we must start now to accept them as being the loving, nurturing, child-rearing fathers that they are rapidly becoming in our society. References Spock, Dr. Benjamin, Pocket Book of Childcare, (Duell, Sloane, and Pearce. 20tb Printing, June 1951), pp. 14-15, 242-244. Kellogg, Rhoda, Babies Need Fathers Too, (Comet Press, 2nd Edition, 1954), pp. 31 -36. Caplan, Frank, TTie First Twelve Months of Life, (Bantam Books, 1978) pp. 27, 113. Restak, Richard M., "New bom Knowledge,* Science Magadne, (January, February 1982) pp. 58-65. Berger, Kathleen Stassen, "Research Report: "Fathers and Infants," The DevelopingChild Through Childhood and Adolescence, (Worth Publishers, 1991), pp. 214. Fegan, Maureen Weldon, "Dads Do It Differently," American Baby Magazine, (April 1991), A17. Larson, Erik, "The New Father," Parents Magazine, (June 1991), pp. 90-94. 51 �Creation Myths By Randi Latham Course: V/orld Literature Instructor: Maruinne North Assignment: Summarize two creation myths we have discussed in class and describe your reactions to them. As I read the creation myths from around the world, the Greek and Indian ideas of the gradual moral disintegration of society intrigued me. Reared in a Christian home, it is readily apparent to me that the more bobbles we aeate the further we as society move from a spiritual to a material nature. It is interesting to learn that peoples long ago realized that the more assets they acquired, the more they desired. In the Greek creation myth, five generations of mortals were created. The Race of Gold were "pure in heart and in deed" (pg 13) and lived simple lives. As Hesiod states in this myth, "They had the time and the desire to enjoy the wildflowers that radiantly blossomed in the sunshine and the stars that shone in the night sky." (pg 13) The second generation of mortals was the Race of Silver, whose spirits never matured as their bodies did. The third generation, the Race of Bronze, continued the societal decline with their acts of cruelty and war. The Race of Heroes was more virtuous than the two previous races, but the decay continued with the fifth and final generation. The Race of Iron. For the Iron Race, "each day is filled with wcwk and with grief, and each night many mortals die. The worst crimes in the history of humanity now occur...and yet no mortal feels shame. Justice and faith have left the world; treason and fraud, violence and greed have replaced them." (pg 14) 52 �As 1 read the above quote from the Indian myth, I was shocked by how well it fits society loday—and this myth was written almost 1500 years ago! Are we really advancing or have we just managed to clutter our lives with meaningless distractions? As Alexander Solzhenitsyn said in a speech he delivered at Harvard's commencement exercises, "Since {man's} body is doomed to die, his task on earth evidently must be of a more spiritual nature. Il cannot be the search for the best ways to obtain material goods and then cheerfully gel the most out of them." The Indian Creation myth views life in much the same way, although it has four ages in comparison. These ages progress in much the same way as the Greek races do, with the final age being basically banen of virtue. The myth slates, "In the Kali Yuga, people achieve noble rank in society based on the amount of money and properly they own rather than their moral virtue. The quality of virtue is measured only in terms of material wealth. Sexual passion alone binds husband and wife together in marriage. People become successful in life through a succession of lies, and their only source of enjoyment is sex. They live with continuous fear of hunger, disease, and death." (pg 355) 53 �fl Legal Research Memo By Janet Middaugh Course: Legal Research 11 Instructor: Mary Kubichek Assignment: Students were to research a current legal issue and draft a legal memo. Interoffice Memorandum of Law To From: Dale: File: Re: Mary Kubichek Janet Middaugh November 19,1992 111992 Collection of child suppwt by private collection agency. Assignment Facts You asked me to research private collection agencies handling child support debts. A private collection agency has recently opened for business locally. They have advertised and represent themselves by phone as a business exclusively devoted to collecting unpaid child support. Their representatives inform prospective clients that they use aggressive colleclicxi agency tactics to collect They ask for a power of attorney Issue Is a private collection agency a valid debt collector as defined by the Fair Debt collection Practices Act. 54 �and assignment of past-due child support debts to private collection agencies. from their clients in order to hire attorneys for garnishments, attachments, and commencement of lawsuits. If the client has not received AFDC benefits in the past, they request an assignment of the anearages. They operate on a contingency fee basis of 25%. A. Is Child Support a "Debt"? The courts have held that child support is a debt in the case of Sheffield v. Sheffield, 27 B.R. 504 (Bankr. N.D.Ga. 1983). This case involved a suit where a debtor sought a discharge of child support anearages in bankruptcy. The court held that a debt be discharged unless it is ...to a spouse, former spouse, or child of the debtor, for alimony to, maintenance for, or support of such spouse or child, in connection with a separation agreement, divorce decree, or property settlement agreement.. Discussion In researching this issue, it is important to look into several questions: A. Is child support considered a "debt"? B. Is a private collection agency considered a "debt collector"? C. How does the law regard assignment of child support debts? D. How must a private collection agency conduct their collection practices according to the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act? Sheffield at 505. In Sheffield and subsequent cases mentioned in this memorandum, courts consistently refer to child support as a debt The Wyoming statute regarding collection agencies states ...The term "Collection Agency" shall mean and include all persons, firms, ccrporations, and voluntary associations engaged directly or indirectly, and as primary or secondary object, business or pursuit, in soliciting claims for collection or in the collection of claims owed or due, or asserted to be owed or due to another, and any person, firm, corporation or voluntary association when engaged in the collection of accounts for another, where the employment is for more than one (1) person, firm, corporation or voluntary association, shall be deemed to be engaged in the collection business within the meaning of this act B. 1$ a Private Collection Agency Considered a "Debt Collector" Under Fair Debt Collection Practices Act? The courts defined a private collection agency as a "debt collector" in the case of Kimber v. Federal Financial Corp., 668 F. Supp. 1480 (D.M.AI. 1987). This case involved a debtor's suit against a collection agency alleging violations of FDCPA. The court considered the definition of a collection agency under FDCZPA in this case and found As the Senate Committee that considered the Act wrote, The committee intends the term "debt collector," subject to the exclusions discussed below, to cover all third persons who regularly collect debts for others. The primary persons intended to be covered are independent debt collectors. Wyo. Stat §§ 33-11-101 and 102 (1977). There are no cases on point in Wyoming case law regarding this issue. I will begin by looking at cases which define child support as a "debt," private collection agencies as "debt collectors," Kimber at 1485, The act itself defines the term in § 1692a (6): 55 �The lenn "debt collector" means any person who uses any instrumentality of interstate commerce or the mails in any business the principal purpose of which is the collection of any debts, or who regularly collects or attempts to collect, directly or indirectly, debts owed or due or asserted to be owed or due another. party's status is altered and the exception falls. The back child support was lost to the ex-wife. Another case involving assignment of past-due child support is the case of In re Marriage of Shore, 139 Cal. Rptr. 349 (Cal. Ct. App. 1977). This case involved a former recipient of AFDC’s attempt to assign her past-due child support to a private collection agency. The court held that ...by paying AFDC aid to the custodial parent, the county, under a well outlined statutory scheme, obtains an irrevocable right to the collection of all support payments that have accrued while the custodial parent was receiving AFDC.... The court’s decision is that FDCPA clearly considers a private collection agency to be a "debt collector." C. How Do the Courts Regard Assignment of Past-Due Child Support Debts to Private Collection Agencies? Shore at 352. A custodial parent may assign the debt to anyone she wishes so long as the assignment is for debts which mature and come due after termination of AFDC benefits. The amount which accrued while she was receiving AFDC must be collected exclusively by the governmental child support collecting agency. The courts regarded the issue of assignment of past-due child support debts in the case of In re Reichurdt, 27 B.R. 751 (Bankr. W.D. Wash. 1983). This case involved an ex-wife who assigned her child support arrearages to a collection agency. The ex-husband then filed for bankruptcy. Usually, child support is nondischargeable in bankruptcy. However, in Reichurdt the court held that The operative document entitled "Assignment of Back Child Support" appears to be in the nature of a true assignment. A definite property interest in the obligation assigned vested in Seattle Bonded, Inc. upon the execution of the assignment. That 50% interest in the back support would inure to the collection agency even in the event the assignee would cancel the assignment at a later time. This reflects more than an intent to make a mere assignment for collection purposes only. It was intended to be a true assignment In applying these cases to our set of facts, we may conclude that the local agency falls under FDCPA's definition of a "debt collector." The child support obligations which they handle are considered "debts." Clients who wish to assign past-due child support debts are legally free to do so. The local agency has indicated their awareness of and compliance with the Clerk of the District Court's exclusive right to collect arrearages of AFDC recipients. The issue of losing the exception to discharge child support debts in bankruptcy if that debt has been assigned is the main area of concern. My research has not been able to ascertain whether this agency is aware of the court's decision in Reichurdt when they ask their clients to sign an assignment of debt document. Reichurdt at 753. The court's decision that the assignment was a true assignment had the result of waiving the ex-wife’s usual exception of child support dischargeability in bankruptcy. The court found that once a debt is assigned, the privileged In summary, these cases hold that child support is a "debt," as in Sheffield. A private collection agency is a "debt collector" as defined by FDCPA and in Kimber. Assignment of past-due child 56 �support is a true assignment and such an assignment may cause the debt to become dischargeable in bankruptcy, as in Reichurdt. Any cunent or past recipient of AITX^ may assign only those debts which mature and come due after termination of AFDC benefits, as in Shore. 1 will now look at four cases which deal with how a collection agency must conduct their collection practices to comply with the FDCPA. all debts they procure for collection, or 70% of each debt. My research did not reveal any evidence of discouraging a client to work with the Clerk of District Court's child support collection agency. However, they had nothing much to say about the Clerk's agency. D. How Must a Private Collection Agency Conduct Their Collection Practices According to the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act? The courts have held that collection agencies are prohibited from practicing law, and they may not use the assignment of a debt to proceed in their own name. The case of Nelson v. Smith, 154 P.2d 634 (Utah 1944), involved a case of a collection agency who solicited the placement of debts with them for collection purposes. The agency stated it would collect, bring suit, and furnish legal services incident to the debt collection. They instructed their clients to assign the debt to the agency. They then proceeded in their own name as assignee to perform the legal services. The court held The courts themselves will not permit laymen to appear in court in a representative capacity. The policy of the courts and the legislature in this regard may not be circumvented by the subterfuge of a layman taking assignment to permit him to carry on the business of practicing law. 2. Collection agencies are prohibited from practicing law. They may not use the assignment of a debt to proceed in their own name. 1. Misleading advertisements and promises are illegal. The courts have held that the use of misleading advertisements and promises by a private collection agency in soliciting past-due child support debts for collection is illegal. Ulberg v. Seattle Bonded, Inc., 626 P.2d 522 (Wash. Ct. App. 1981), involved a case where an ex-wife sued a collection agency she had retained to collect past-due child support She alleged that the agency had used misleading advertisements and made promises that they could guarantee their results. The trial court found that not only had Seattle Bonded used unfair and deceptive practices to conduct their business, but also that these acts had induced Ulberg to act or refrain from acting. The court held that The enforcement of child support obligations is a matter of public interest, and collection agencies can be held liable under the consumer protection act for deceptive acts and practices relating to the collection of past-due child support Nelson al 639. The court further held that the agency could not themselves hire an attorney to perform legal services. One cannot do through an employee or an agent that which he cannot do himself. If the attorney is in fact the agent or employee of the lay agency, his acts are the acts of his principal or master. Ulberg al 525. Ulberg was awarded damages. Nelson at 640. The client must hire the attorney and pay all costs himself. In researching the local agency, 1 was able to ascertain that though they do not guarantee their results, they do boast a 70% success rate. I do not know whether this rellects 70% full collection of In order to circumvent the prohibition on practicing law without a license, the local agency 57 �FDCPA prohibits communication by the debt collector with third parties, § 1692c(b): ...without the prior consent of the consumer given directly to the debt collector, or the express permission of a court of competent jurisdiction, or as reasonably necessary to effectuate a post­ judgment judicial remedy, a debt collector may not communicate, in connection with the collection of any debt, with any person other than the consumer, his attorney, a consumer reporting agency if other-wise permitted by law, the creditor, the attorney of the creditor, or the attorney of the debt collector. in our set of facts obtains a power of attorney from the client to allow the hiring of an attorney to commence legal actions. They do gain consent from the client before they proceed with any legal actions. 3. Violations of FDCPA in coUection practices. There are many ways in which a collection agency may be found to be in violation of the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act. The following cases illustrate several ways in which the local agency may have violated FDCPA. In Bingham v. Collection Bureau. Inc., 505 F, Supp, 864 (D.N.D. 1981), a collection agency was found to have violated FDCPA by the use of harassing phone calls. The telephone collector had used immediate ringbacks when the plaintiff hung up on him. The phone collectors also allowed the plaintiff to believe she would be jailed for nonpayment of debt. They asked intrusive questions concerning highly personal assets, in this case wedding rings. The phone collectors also used aliases in their dealing with debtors. The court found all these practices to be in violation of FDCPA 15 U.S.C. §1692d: A debt collector may not engage in any conduct the natural consequence of which is to harass, oppress, or abuse any person in connection with the collection of a debt (5) Causing a telephone to ring or engaging any person in telephone conversation repeatedly or continuously with intent to annoy, abuse, or harass any person at the called number. (6) Except as provided in section 1692b of this title, the placement of telephone calls without meaningful disclosure of the caller’s identity. The collection agency's indication by letter that they would be investigating her neighborhood and contacting her employer in connection with the debt was a clear violation. The court ruled in favor of the plaintiff on the issue of liability. My research of the local collection agency in question has revealed that they may be in violation of FDCPA’s general standard prohibiting harassment. As Bingham shows, they may not threaten jail or other legal actions which they have no power to impose. Nor may they use the telephone to harass, oppress, or abuse. As in Rutyna, they may not suggest they will contact third parties. These four cases illustrate practices from which collection agencies are prohibited by law. They may not harass, oppress, or abuse the debtor, as in Bingham, and Rutyna. They may not use deceptive, unfair advertisements or guarantee results as in Ulberg. They may not use the subterfuge of a debt assignment to practice law, as in Nelson. In final summary, child support is a "debt," and a private collection agency is a "debt collector." Clients may assign child support debts to a private collection agency if they wish. A former or cunent AFDC recipient may assign only those which mature and come due after termination of AFDC benefits. An assignment of past-due child Plaintiff Bingham was awarded damages. The case of Rutyna v. Collection Accounts Terminal. Inc., 478 F. Supp. 980 (N.D. Ill. 1979), also involved violations of the general standard prohibiting harassment quoted supra. Further, the 58 �abusive practices in collection of debts. Nor may they use deceptive, unfair practices or guarantee their results. All the cases cited in this memorandum have been shepardized and are current case law. support will act to allow the debt to become dischargeable in bankruptcy. A collection agency may not practice law. The assignment of a debt for collection purposes only does not allow an agency to proceed in court in their own name. An agency may not use harassing, oppressive, or 59 �c Ambu-Man By Art Toews and David Davison Course: Automation Electronics Instructor: Joe Schaffner Assignment: A research project that must perform collection of data in real time, analyze and print out the output over an extended test period. Introduction Proposal Interface the Ambu-Man CPR simulator to a computer via conditioning circuitry. An Analog to Digital converter will be used to convert signals obtained from Ambu-Man, to the port on a computer. These signals will be processed by the computer. Control and calculations will be provided in software. The results will be monitored and displayed to the monitor. An audible ^arm will be provided for use when the trainee makes a mistake in band position or improper ventilation rate. This document will explain the procedures that are necessary to interface the Ambu-Man cardiopulmonary resuscitation simulator with a computer. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation will hereafter be referred to as "CPR." Monitoring electronically the ventilation rate and depth, the compression depth and correct band position of the trainee will be provided. By interfacing with a computer, more advanced training and an in- depth analysis of the trainee's effectiveness can be monitored. The trainees will be able to see the results of their performance on the computer monitor after they have performed the prescribed operations on the AmbuMan simulator. 60 �J Materials: Ambu-Man CPR Training Simulator Computer Analog to Digital Convener ADC-0809 Conditioning circuitry Software CPR Fundamentals Handling an emergency situation successfully lakes training, practice, and the ability to work under pressure. Emergency treatment isn't an instinctive knowledge. If the proper procedures in handling an emergency are not followed, more damage could be done to the victim than good. Thus came the need for a means of training persons in emergency treatment. With proper training, your life, a member of your family's life, or the life of somebody you just came upon, might be saved. The proper steps to follow in an emergency situation are as follows. Make certain the area around the victim poses no threat to you or to the victim. Check to see if the victim is breathing. Check for bleeding. Try to get the victim to respond. If there is no response, call for help. Place the victim on his/her back. Check to be sure the victim's airway is clear. Check for breathing again; if breathing is absent, give two quick breaths. Check for a pulse.3 If there is a pulse, continue giving breaths every five seconds. Continue giving breaths until victim breathes alone or professional help arrives. If there is no pulse, begin external compressions. Find the notch at the bottom of the breast bone. Measure up two fingers' width, then place the heel of your hand above your two fingers. Place your other hand on top. Press straight down to compress the chest one and one half to two inches. Make fifteen compressions, then give two short breaths, and continue these procedures for around five minutes. The main objective is to keep the brain alive and undamaged. CPR should never be given (Ml somebody whose heart is beating or who is breathing.3 We will be concentrating on whether the victim is breathing and has a heart rale. Many training models have been pul on the market to aid in this training. One of the latest models is Ambu-Man. On Ambu-Man's display card, test results are viewed. Ventilation, compression rate, proper hand position, and proper ventilation are monitored. Ambu-Man is equipped for computer interface to monitor these procedures. Enors and results are displayed on the computer’s monitor, using graphs and display screens. As can be seen in an emergency situation these procedures might not just pop into your head. The proper steps to go through will be made easier with instruction and practice on a model, like the Ambu-Man. Ambu-Man CPR Simulator Ambu-Man is designed to meet all training recommendations of the American Heart Association. The Ambu-Man simulator is an advanced training simulator to monitor correct cardiopulmonary resuscitation during insufflation and external compressions. Each individual trainee is provided with a face piece and head bag to eliminate any risk of cross infection between the trainees. The head bags are disposable making Ambu-Man a hygienic sysiem.2 The Ambu-Man simulator is the size of a normal adult. Adjustment is provided for the trainees, as to the stiffness of the chest compressions. Adjustments for teenager, adult and hefty adult provide a life-like representation of any group that resuscitation might have to be performed on.2 Built in insirumenialion is provided on AmbuMan that shows the effectiveness of resuscitation. Results include insufflation volume, stomach insufflation, depth of compression and incorrect hand positioning. When air is blown into Ambu- 61 �Man the head bag expands, displacing air in the skull through a valve. The valve is opened when the head is tilted back or the jaw is thrust up. The air that was in the head passes through the neck tube into the lung bag. This expands and elevates the chest. If the air volume is too great, the stomach valve opens suddenly, allowing the air into the stomach and the stomach is elevated. The movement of the chest and stomach are sent mechanically to the monitoring equipment on Ambu-Man.2 When CPR is performed, the chest is pressed down. These compressions are also sent mechanically to the monitoring equipment. The compressions are monitored for correct hand position and depth. The carotid pulse can be pulsed through a tube and bellows. This pulse can be activated manually or can be seen while giving compressions, and is found on the right side of Ambu-Man's neck. individual wires were run from the socket to the conditioning circuit Readings can be viewed on both sides of the mechanical monitoring instrument provided with Ambu-Man which is shown in figure 3-2. A cover plate is provided on the side facing the trainee so the readings can be concealed from the trainee doing the CPR test. Gauges for ventilation and compression will display green when the correct volume and compression pressure is reached. Red will be displayed when incorrect pressure and ventilation is reached. Stomach inflation and incorrect hand positioning are indicated by the display changing from black to red.2 Ambu-Man's Monitoring Instruments The Ambu-Man simulator was obtained from Mr. Ed Boyer, instructor of the Mine Safety class at Casper College. The internal circuitry was inspected to see how it worked. On the printed circuit board were two, 10,000 ohm slide potentiometers. These were for the ventibtion and compression. Also included were two on/off switches, used for compression depth and proper ventilation. The internal circuitry was accessible via the six pin DIN socket that is shown in figure 3-1. The adapter plug was not available, so Figure 3-2 11 Ventilation in liters 2] Stomach inflation 3] Compression in mm 4] Incorrect hand position Conditioning Circuitry The four analog signals from Ambu-Man had to be converted to digital signals that the computer could decode into numerical values that could be understood by the everyday user. The AEX20809 analog-to-digital converter, shown as wired in figure 4-1, was the chip used to perform these conversions; however, only four of the eight channels were used. The analog-to-digital converter will hereafter be referred to as "ADC.” The ADC0809 data acquisition component is a monolithic complementary metal-oxide semiconductor device, commonly called "CMOS,” with an eight-bit ADC, eight-channel multiplexer and microprocessor compatible control logic. The 1] Ventilation 2] Over Ventilation 3] Hand Position 4] Compression 5] Vco+SV 6] Ground Figure 3-1 62 �Over Blow (11 (2) (31 in4 in5 in6 J5L in? (6) start PCD ' PA3 _EL (81 inZ 128L ini inO (261 add A (25) add B (2^1 add C (231 ALE (221 D7 (211 D6 [201 D5 (191 D4 (181 [IZL DO VrcfD2 ADC0809CCN D3 out enable 625kHz . (1“I CLK Vcc It cv □¥ 1 Vfci+ (121 ° ( ■iiiia GND 1141 01 PAI ,-Vcnt H. Pos Comp “ PBO PC4 PB1 PB2 ^PA7 PA6 PA5 PA4 PAO PA2 Figure 4-1 card that is based on the Intel 8255A chip.| The Intel 8255A chip is quite versatile, and the variety of modes and bit configurations may be overwhelming; however, this chip is very popular for digital input/output applications. The Intel 8255A chip was configured for mode zero, and the ports were set up as follows: Port A an input. Port B an output, Port C lower an input, and Port C upper an outpuL Mode zero configured the 8255A chip for simple input/output operations that allowed Ports A and B to be either inputs or outputs and Port C to be split into two halves that can be either inputs or outputs.) eight-bit ADC uses successive approximation as the conversion technique. The converter features a high impedance chopper stabilized comparator, a voltage divider with analog switch tree and a successive approximation register. The eight­ channel multiplexer can directly access any of eight-single-ended analog signals. The ADC0809 offers high speed, high accuracy, minimal temperature dependance, excellent long-term accuracy and repeatabili^, and consumes minimal power.4 The clocking was provided to the ADC0809 by the 7285 microprocessor clock running at 650,000 hertz that is shown in figure 4-2. The specifications sheet for the ADC0809 stated the typical clock speed for this chip was 640,000 hertz.4 The converted digital signal from the ADC0809 was sent to the computer by way of the A-BUS Adapter Card, The base Port of the ABUS, which accesses sixty-four Ports, was Port seven hundred and four. The DG-148, Digital Input Board, was plugged into the A-BUS, to access ports seven hundred twelve through seven hundred fifteen. The DG-148, Digital Input Board, is a twenty four line digital inpul/output GND_ E25kHj^ MC0B71B MPU CLK. 728S ♦5V_ Figure 4-2 63 �Software Development The first part of the main loop is a short instruction set for the user and explains what the program is for. The introduction welcomes the user to the Ambu-Man experience and says that there is a choice of lime up to one hundred and twenty seconds. Then the trainee is told what will be monitored and to hit "enter" to proceed with the program. The second step in the program asks the user to input the desiied time frame. If the user inputs a value of over one hundred and twenty seconds an error message will be displayed and the user will be instructed to enter the correct time again. After the time is entered, the user is instructed to enter his/her name. The third step is the heart of the program. The first part of this step allows the user ten seconds to get ready to perform on the simulator. Then a Most of the program is included in one main loop that first explains the program and some of the options available to the user. Second, the user inputs the time frame that is desired and then enters his/her name. Third, after a ten second pause the program will monitor all four inputs from Ambu-Man for the lime frame indicated by the user and store the values in an array. Fourth, after the inputs have been observed the graphical results are displayed on the monitor. After the graphical results are displayed (Figure 5), the program will jump out to a subroutine that displays the frequency of the operations performed on the Ambu-Man simulator. The user has the option of restarting or exiting the program when finished. Compression Depth Compressions per 60 seconds = 37 50mm I 40mm I 30mm» 10mm' 2.0 1.6 - Breaths per 60 seconds = 6 Breath ,AA 0 10 20 AA 30 aa 40 50 Bad hand position = 1 times Over ventilation = 0 times You Still Need Practice Trainee Figure 5 64 60 �nested loop, that is programmed to run for the time indicated by the user, starts monitoring the inputs in the following manner. First the ports on the DG-148, Digital Input Board, were structured as was explained earlier. The command word ’’one hundred forty-five" was shipped out Port seven hundred fifteen to accomplish this. Next, the first analog output line from Ambu-Man had to be selected by sending a binary zero out Port B. Each of the four channels used had a unique binary code that would select them one at a time. Now the address latch enable line, hereafter referred to as "ALE," is pulled low and then forced high and then back low. This is accomplished by sending the corresponding signals out Port C, line number five, that is connected to the ALE and start lines of the ADC0809 chip. Then, another loop pauses and monitors the end of conversion line, hereafter referred to as "EOC," until the data is ready and can be read by the computer. Port C line one, which is an input line to the computer, is connected to the EOC line. When a "high" is detected on the EOC line, it means the ADC0809 has had sufficient time to convert the analog signal to a digital signal. The digital data can now be read by the computer via Port A; this is an input to the computer. The data is stored in an array so it may be recalled later in the display portion of the program. The above process is repeated for all four inputs, one after another. The process repeals itself until the time indicated by the user has expired. Different computers will have different sampling rates but the program doesn't care because the time of day clock in the computer and the user set the time frame. The fourth section in the main body of the program puls a graphical representation of the data that was obtained in the sampling loop. This data is recalled from the arrays and scaled to fit on the graph and on the monitor by retrieving the data in the same order that it was obtained. TTiis section also monitors the data from the arrays and detects all of the peak values. Each time one is detected, it is counted so the frequency of the operations can be calculated. As soon as the graph is displayed and the peaks are tabulated, the program jumps to a subroutine that displays the frequency of the operations of all four data lines. This information is displayed on the monitor and the printer. At the end of the subroutine, the program returns to the main body of the program. Then the user is asked whether to end or to restart the program. Summary 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 65 CPR is not something that we know instinctively. Il is a skill that we should all know that takes constant practice to be proficient at and a CPR simulator is about the best way to practice. The Ambu-Man simulator is a state-of-the-art CPR simulator. The simulator is designed to allow the beginner as well as the seasoned professional a means to practice these life saving skills and to get an objective analysis of how good their skills actually are. The Ambu-Man simulator is designed to allow a mechanical and an electrical analysis of the trainee’s progress. The mechanical analysis is sufficient but it does not allow the trainee to reflect on his performance. Someone else must observe the mechanical gauges and tell the trainee how the performance rated. The electrical analysis allows the trainee to see a graphical representation of the performance, to be able to see the areas that need improvement. The internal circuitry is quite simple to figure out and the analog signal produced from the simulator is quite easily converted to a digital signal. The conversion is done with an ADC0809 chip that is an eight-bit eight­ channel ADC. In order to be able to display the results of a training session a program must be written that will strode all four of the analog signals from the simulator. This must be done in the proper order and at the proper speed so the �I 6. ADC0809 will be able lo convert the signal to a digital signal and have the data ready when the computer is ready to read it This p’oject explains what data is needed and why that data is so important The ADC used in this project is designed as a complete Data Acquisition System for ratiometric Biblography 1. A-BUS Overview, Alpha Products, DG-148. 2. Ambu-Man, Ambu lotemational A/S. 3. Ellis. Family MeJied Gutde, Publicationi iDtematkmal LTD, 1983. 4. linear Databook 2, Natimal Semiconductor Corporatioo Rev. 1,1988BditiofL conversion systems. A good example of a ratiometric transducer is a potentiometer used as a position sensor.4 That is exactly the type of transducer that was used in this Data Acquisition System. �Spring 1993 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Casper College Challenge Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource <a href="http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/">http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/</a> Description An account of the resource This digital collection contains issues of Challenge, a publication of Casper College student writing from across the curriculum but outside of writing-specific courses. Issues of the publication date from 1987 to 1991 and 1993 to 1996. Type The nature or genre of the resource Text Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Casper College Language A language of the resource ENG Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context CCA 04.ii.1996.01_Challenge Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource PDF Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. 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